Theory of Production 1 0
Theory of Production 1 0
Theory of Production 1 0
Theory of Production
Introduction:
Production is a process by which goods and services are made available to the consumer.
Production process simply means the physical relationship between inputs (labour,
materials, capital, etc) used and the resulting output.
The supply of product depends upon its cost of production, which in turn depends upon-
(a) the physical relationship between inputs and output (production function), and (b) the
price of inputs.
Production function:
The production function is a purely technical relationship between inputs and output
(products).
Production function represents the technology of a firm of an industry.
The theory of production is the study of production function.
The general mathematical form of the production function is-
Q = f (L, K, R, S, υ, γ)
Production with one variable input: total, marginal and average products-
TP is defined as the total quantity of goods produced by a firm during a specific period of
time.
TP can be increased by employing more and more of the variable factor labour.
In figure, TPL curve starts from the origin, increases at an increasing rate, then increases
at decreasing rate, reaches a maximum and then starts falling.
AP is defined as the amount of output per unit of the variable factor employed, i.e.,
Total Output TP
APL = Labour Input = L
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Example:
The APL and MPL curves are derived from the TPL curve given in the figure-
APL at any point on the TPL curve is the slope of the straight line from the origin to that
point on the TPL curve. The value of slope rises and declines thereafter.
APL initially rises, reaches a maximum and then falls.
As long as TPL is positive, APL is positive.
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APL is inverted- U shaped.
MPL at any point on the TPL curve is the slope of the TPL curve at that point. The slope
rises then falls till TPL is maximum. At that point slope is zero and beyond that it is
negative.
MPL rises initially, reaches at maximum when the slope of the tangent is steepest and
then declines.
When TPL is maximum, MPL is zero.
When TPL falls, MPL is negative.
TPL is the area under the MPL curve.
The falling portion of the MPL curve shows the law of variable proportions.
MPL is positive as long as TPL is increasing, but becomes negative when output (TPL) is
decreasing.
Initially when both APL and MPL curves are rising, MPL curve rises at a faster rate than
the APL curve. Both APL and MPL curves rise till the fixed factor (L) is under-utilized.
When both APL and MPL curves are falling, MPL curve falls at a faster rate than the APL
curve. Both APL and MPL curves start falling once the fixed factor (L) is fully utilized.
When APL curve neither rising nor falling, MPL = APL.
There is a range where even through the MPL curve is falling APL curve continues to rise.
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The law operates under these assumptions:
State of production or technology remains unchanged;
All units of variable factor, labour, are homogeneous or of same quality; and
There must always be some fixed input.
Stages of Production:
Stage I goes from origin to the point where the APL is maximum (i.e., from origin to
point b).
In this stage, TPL is initially increasing at an increasing rate and then starts increasing
at decreasing rate from the point of inflexion (point c) onwards.
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APL rises throughout in this stage.
MPL rises initially and then starts falling.
Increasing returns are due to indivisibility of factors and specialization of labour.
A rational producer will not operate in this stage because the producer always has an
incentive to expand through Stage I of labour because rising APL means the average
cost decreases as output is increased.
This stage of production ranges from the point where APL is maximum to the point
where MPL is zero (i.e., from point b to d).
In this stage both APL and MPL are positive but declining.
A rational producer will always operate in this Stage because he wants to maximize
efficiency of scarce factor, labour.
The law of diminishing returns operates in this Stage II.
It is the most fundamental law of production.
Stage III covers the entire range over which MPL is negative.
A rational producer will not operate in this stage.
Iso- quant:
An isoquant shows the different combinations of labour and capital with which a firm can
produce a specific quantity of output.
It is defined as the locus of all the technically efficient combinations of inputs which
yield a given amount of output.
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Features of Isoquants:
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Isoquants are convex to the origin: Diminishing MRTS
Convexity implies diminishing slope.
The slope of an isoquant is called marginal rate of technical substitution of
labour for capital (MRTSLK). It is the rate of trade- off of one factor for the
other.
The slope measures the degree of substitutability of the factors.
𝜕𝐾 𝑀𝑃𝐿
Slope of an isoquant = = MRTSLK = 𝑀𝑃𝐾
𝜕𝐿
MRTSLK is defined as the amount of capital that the firm is willing to give up
in exchange for labour, so that output remains constant.
An isocost line shows the different combinations of labour and capital that a firm can
buy, given total outlay (TO) and the prices of the factors.
An isocost equation is given as:
TO = PL.L + PK.K
𝑂𝐴 𝑇𝑂/𝑃𝐾 𝑃𝐿
Slope of Isocost = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑇𝑂/𝑃𝐿 = (−) 𝑃𝐾
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Producer’s Equilibrium:
If cost is a constraint then the producer maximizes his output subject to a single isocost
line (AB). The producer’s equilibrium is shown in this fig.-
At point Q, the isocost line is
tangent to the highest possible
isoquant at production level of
100.
At the point of tangency, the
absolute slope of an isoquant is
equal to the absolute slope of the
isocost line.
Thus, the conditions of producer’s
equilibrium are-
1. Slope of isoquant = slope of
isocost line, i.e.,
MRTSLK = PL/PK
MPL/MPK = PL/PK
MPL/PL = MPK/PK
2. Isoquants must be convex to
the origin.
Case II: Minimize Cost Subject to an Output Constraint
If output is given, then the producer will aim to minimize his cost subject to a single
isoquant, I as shown in the following fig.
Point E is the point of producer’s equilibrium.
It shows the minimum cost of producing the given output.
At point E, the given isoquant (I) is tangent to the lowest possible isocost line.
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At this point of tangency, the absolute slope of isoquant is equal to the absolute slope of
isocost line.
Thus, the conditions of producer’s equilibrium are the same-
1. Slope of isoquant = slope of isocost line, i.e.,
MRTSLK = PL/PK
MPL/MPK = PL/PK
MPL/PL = MPK/PK
Isoquants must be convex to the origin.
Expansion Path:
Elasticity of Substitution:
Elasticity of substitution (es) between two factors labour and capital measures the ease
with which one factor can be substituted for the other.
It is defined as the proportionate change in the ratio between the two factors divided by
the proportionate change in their MRTS. i.e.,
% 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾/𝐿 ∆𝐾/𝐿 𝑀𝑅𝑇𝑆𝐿𝐾
es = % 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑅𝑇𝑆𝐿𝐾 = ∆𝑀𝑅𝑇𝑆𝐿𝐾. 𝐾/𝐿
Returns to Scale:
In the long run output (production) may be increased by changing all factors by the same
proportion, or by different proportions.
The term ‘returns to scale’ refers to the changes in output as all factors change by the
same proportion.
There are three types of returns to scale-
1. Increasing Returns to Scale;
2. Constant Returns to Scale; and
3. Decreasing Returns to Scale.
When the increase in output is more than proportional to the increase in inputs, it is called
increasing returns to scale.
Increasing Returns to scale implies decreasing costs and decreasing costs are due to
economies of large- scale production, which takes place by increasing the scale of
operation.
In terms of isoquant map, the distance between successive isoquants decreases.
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Constant Returns to Scale
When the increase in output is proportional to the increase in inputs, it is called constant
returns to scale.
In terms of isoquant map, the distance between successive isoquants remains the same.
When the increase in output is less than proportional to the increase in inputs, it is called
diminishing returns to scale.
Diminishing returns to scale implies increasing costs and increasing costs are due to
diseconomies of large- scale production, which takes place by excessive increasing the
scale of operation.
In this case, there is managerial inefficiency caused by scarce supply of factors of
production and imperfect substitution.
The manager is overburdened and faces the problems of control and coordination.
In terms of isoquant map, the distance between successive isoquants increases.
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Reasons behind Returns to Scale: Economies and Diseconomies of Scale
Returns to Scale
Internal External
Economies Economies Internal
Economies External
Technical Economies of Economies
concertration Technical
Managerial External cost
Economies of Financial that spill over
Marketing
information Risk- bearing into other
Financial firms costs.
Economies of Managerial
Labour disintegration
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Questions for Review
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans T T F T T F F F T T
II. Matching Test:
Match- I Match- II
A. Short- run production function: a. Returns to Scale
B. Long- run production function: b. Law of variable proportions
C. The different combinations of labour and c. Iso- quant
capital with which a firm can produce a
specific quantity of output is known as:
D. The different combinations of labour and d. Iso- cost line
capital that a firm can buy, given total
outlay (TO) and the prices of the factors.
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I A B C D
II b a c d
III. Multiple Choice Questions:
1. Production function provides measurements of-
a. The marginal productivity of the factors of production;
b. The marginal rate of substitution and the elasticity of substitution;
c. The return to scale;
d. Factor intensity;
e. All of the above.
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c. Marginal productivity of factors; d. Elasticity of substitution
6. Slope of an iso- quant is-
a. MRTS; b. Marginal productivity of factors;
c. Elasticity of substitution; d. Factors intensity.
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans e d c a a a b b b a
Ans: Production is a process by which goods and services are made available to the consumer.
Ans: The production function is a purely technical relationship between inputs and output
(products). It represents the technology of a firm of an industry.
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Ques: What is iso- quant?
Ans: An isoquant shows the different combinations of labour and capital with which a firm can
produce a specific quantity of output. It is defined as the locus of all the technically efficient
combinations of inputs which yield a given amount of output.
Ans: An isocost line shows the different combinations of labour and capital that a firm can buy,
given total outlay (TO) and the prices of the factors.
Ques: How many types of production functions are there in theory of production?
Ans: Short- run production function is that production function in which firms can adjust
production by changing variable factors such as materials and labour but cannot change
quantities of one or more fixed factors such as capital, land etc. it is also known as law of
variable proportion.
Ans: The long- run production function is that production function in which all the factors of
production can be changed. It is also known as laws of returns to scale.
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Ques: Define total product, average product and marginal product.
Ans: Total Product (TP): It is defined as the total quantity of goods produced by a firm during a
specific period of time. TP can be increased by employing more and more of the variable factor
labour.
Average Product (AP): AP is defined as the amount of output per unit of the variable factor
employed, i.e.,
Total Output TP
APL = Labour Input = L
Marginal Product (MP): MP is defined as the change in TP resulting from the employment of
an additional unit of a variable factor (labour). MPL can be written as-
Ans: Short- run production function is known as law of variable proportions in which firms can
adjust production by changing variable factors such as materials and labour but cannot change
quantities of one or more fixed factors such as capital, land etc.
Ques: How many types of laws of variable proportions are there in the short run
production function?
Ans: There are three stages of production or the law of variable proportion can be divided into
three phases/stages-
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Ques: What do you understand by first stage of product or law of increasing returns?
Ans: In the first stage, TPL is initially increasing at an increasing rate and then starts increasing
at decreasing rate from the point of inflexion onwards. APL rises throughout in this stage. MPL
rises initially and then starts falling. Increasing returns are due to indivisibility of factors and
specialization of labour. A rational producer will not operate in this stage because the producer
always has an incentive to expand through Stage I of labour because rising AP L means the
average cost decreases as output is increased.
Ques: What do you understand by second stage of product or law of diminishing returns?
Ans: The second stage of production ranges from the point where AP L is maximum to the point
where MPL is zero. In this stage both APL and MPL are positive but declining. A rational
producer will always operate in this Stage because he wants to maximize efficiency of scarce
factor, labour. The law of diminishing returns operates in this Stage II. It is the most fundamental
law of production.
Ques: What do you understand by third stage of product or law of negative returns?
Ans: Stage III covers the entire range over which MP L is negative. A rational producer will not
operate in this stage.
Ans: In the long run output (production) may be increased by changing all factors by the same
proportion, or by different proportions. The term ‘returns to scale’ refers to the changes in output
as all factors change by the same proportion.
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Ques: What is increasing returns to scale?
Ans: When the increase in output is more than proportional to the increase in inputs, it is called
increasing returns to scale.
Ans: When the increase in output is proportional to the increase in inputs, it is called constant
returns to scale.
Ans: When the increase in output is less than proportional to the increase in inputs, it is called
diminishing returns to scale.
Question: What are the relationships between TPL and APL Curves?
Answer: The relationships between TPL and APL Curves are as follows:
APL at any point on the TPL curve is the slope of the straight line from the origin to that
point on the TPL curve. The value of slope rises and declines thereafter.
APL initially rises, reaches a maximum and then falls.
As long as TPL is positive, APL is positive.
APL is inverted- U shaped.
Question: What are the relationships between TPL and MPL Curves?
Answer: The relationships between TPL and MPL Curves are as follows:
MPL at any point on the TPL curve is the slope of the TPL curve at that point. The slope
rises then falls till TPL is maximum. At that point slope is zero and beyond that it is
negative.
MPL rises initially, reaches at maximum when the slope of the tangent is steepest and
then declines.
When TPL is maximum, MPL is zero.
When TPL falls, MPL is negative.
TPL is the area under the MPL curve.
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The falling portion of the MPL curve shows the law of variable proportions.
MPL is positive as long as TPL is increasing, but becomes negative when output (TPL) is
decreasing.
Question: What are the relationships between APL and MPL Curves?
Answer: The relationships between APL and MPL Curves are as follows:
Initially when both APL and MPL curves are rising, MPL curve rises at a faster rate than
the APL curve. Both APL and MPL curves rise till the fixed factor (L) is under-utilized.
When both APL and MPL curves are falling, MPL curve falls at a faster rate than the APL
curve. Both APL and MPL curves start falling once the fixed factor (L) is fully utilized.
When APL curve neither rising nor falling, MPL = APL.
There is a range where even through the MPL curve is falling APL curve continues to rise.
Ques: What is Cobb- Douglas production function? Write down its main features.
Ans: Cobb- Douglas production function is a linearly homogeneous production function of the
form-
Q = ALαKβ
Where Q = Output
L = Labour input
K = Capital input
A = Efficiency parameter, technology
α = Output elasticity of labour
β = Output elasticity of capital
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Cobb- Douglas production function shows constant return to scale. In Cobb- Douglas production
function, elasticity of substitution (es or σ) is equal to unity and the sum of its exponents
measures returns to scale-
*****
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