Mineral optik

2 SKS teori
by:
hill. gendoet hartono
Semester 3, 2009-2010
Selasa, jam 09.50 10.40
jam 10.40 11.35
The
Petrological Microscope
Jalani proses belajar scr alamiah
Proses akan kepada orang
yang menjalani dgn baik
Apakah Anda siap menerima
pengetahuan ini ?
Bagaimana metode/ cara
belajar yang efektif ?
Bersikaplah terbuka dan
kembangkan pola berfikir ?
Ayo belajar bareng !
The use of the
Petrological Microscope

The use of the microscope allows us to examine rocks
in much more detail. For example, it lets us :-

examine fine-grained rocks
examine textures of rocks
distinguish between minerals that are otherwise
difficult to identify in hand-specimen (e.g. the
feldspars)
Deer,W.A., Howie,R.A. & Zussman, J., 1978, An Introduction to the Rock
Forming Minerals, Longman Group Ltd., London, 528 p.
Philpotts A.R., 1989, Petrografi of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks,
Prentice-Hall, Inc, Engewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 179 p.
Williams, Turner, F,J. & Gilbert, C.M., 1954, Petrography : An
Introduction to the Study of Rocks in Thin Sections, W.H. Freeman &
Co., San Francisco, 406 p.
Hatch, F.H; Wells, A.K., & Wells, M.K., 1972, Petrology of the Igneous
Rocks, George Allen & Unwin (Publishers) Ltd., 13 Ed. 551 p.
Jones, N.W., & Bloss, F.D., 1980, Laboratory Manual For Optical
Mineralogy, Burgess Publishing Company.
Pustaka
A petrological
microscope

The petrological microscope
differs from an ordinary
microscope in two ways:

it uses polarised light
and the stage rotates


There are two sheets of polaroid:
the one below the stage of the
microscope is the polariser, the
other, above the stage, is the
analyser. The analyser can be
moved in and out.


Most rocks cut and ground to
a thickness of 0.03mm become
transparent.

lens
eyepiece
focus
light source
analyser
polariser
rotating
stage
fine focus
Preparing thin sections

Rock specimens are collected in the field, then cut into small
thin slabs. These are glued on to glass slides and ground
down to 0.03mm thickness. At this thickness all rocks
become transparent. Only a few minerals, mainly ore
minerals, remain opaque, i.e. stay black under PPL.

If the sections are too thick, the polarisation colours are
affected. Quartz is used to check thickness for this reason
see the next slide

The colours appear in a series of repeated rainbows across the chart and a
mineral may show any colour up to a maximum, reading from the left.
q
u
a
r
t
z

f
e
l
d
s
p
a
r

calcite
o
l
i
v
i
n
e

a
m
p
h
i
b
o
l
e

p
y
r
o
x
e
n
e

b
i
o
t
i
t
e


m
u
s
c
o
v
i
t
e

Read along 0.03mm line to the
highest order colour seen in the
mineral
Read along diagonal to top
for mineral name
Identifying MINERALS in thin section

When a slide is examined under the microscope, it is
important to identify any mineral properties under plane
polarised light (PPL) first (analyser out); then proceed to
crossed polars (XPL) where the two polaroid sheets are at
right angles to each other (analyser in).

Mineral properties under PPL

colour (natural colour)
transparency (clear, cloudy or opaque)
relief (high or low)
crystal or fragment shape
cleavage
fracture
pleochroism (colour change when stage is rotated)
1) Light passes through the lower polarizer
west
(left)
east
(right)
Plane polarized light PPL Unpolarized light
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Only the component of light vibrating in E-W
direction can pass through lower polarizer
light intensity decreases
2) Insert the upper polarizer
west (left)
east (right)
Now what happens?
What reaches your eye?
Why would anyone design a microscope that
prevents light from reaching your eye???
XPL=crossed nicols
(crossed polars)
south
(front)
north
(back)
Black!! (extinct)
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Note how the olivine with its high relief stands out from the
surrounding low relief plagioclase
RELIEF
PPL
plagioclase
olivine
Mineral properties in PPL: relief
Relief is a measure of the relative difference in n
between a mineral grain and its surroundings
Relief is determined visually, in PPL
Relief is used to estimate n
garnet: n = 1.72-1.89
quartz: n = 1.54-1.55
epoxy: n = 1.54
Quartz has low relief
Garnet has high relief
Mineral properties in PPL: relief
Relief is a measure of the relative difference in n
between a mineral grain and its surroundings
Relief is determined visually, in PPL
Relief is used to estimate n
olivine
plag
olivine: n = 1.64-1.88
plag: n = 1.53-1.57
epoxy: n = 1.54
- Olivine has high relief
- Plagioclase has low relief
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
What causes relief?
n
xtl
> n
epoxy

n
xtl
< n
epoxy

n
xtl
= n
epoxy

Hi relief (+) Lo relief (+) Hi relief (-)
Difference in speed of light (n) in different materials
causes refraction of light rays, which can lead to focusing
or defocusing of grain edges relative to their surroundings
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Two sets of cleavage are seen in this amphibole crystal; note the 120
o

angle between the cleavages
CLEAVAGE
PPL
amphibole
1
st
set run
parallel to line
2
nd
set of
cleavage
The olivine here shows uneven fractures which appear dark
grey in the crystal
FRACTURE
PPL
olivine
The biotite shows its distinct brown shades under PPL against
the clear colourless quartz and feldspar
COLOUR
PPL
biotite
amphibole
PLEOCHROISM
Two views under PPL showing colour change in biotite on rotating the
stage.

PPL
biotite
rotated 90
o
Mineral properties under XPL

interference colours
(under XPL the colours seen are not the natural colours of the mineral but
those caused by the interference of two refracted beams of light passing
through an anisotropic mineral ; they are called interference colours)
extinction angle
(as the stage is rotated, each anisotropic mineral goes extinct every 90
o
; in
cases where there is cleavage in the mineral it is possible to measure the
angle of extinction relative to the crosswires)
twinning
(may be seen in coloured minerals under PPL, but most obvious under XPL,
especially with regard to the feldspars)

Now insert a thin section of a rock in XPL
west (left)
east (right)
Light vibrating E-W
How does this work??
Unpolarized light
Light vibrating in
many planes and
with many
wavelengths
Light and colors
reach eye!
north
south
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Conclusion has to be that minerals somehow
reorient the planes in which light is vibrating;
some light passes through the upper polarizer
But, note that some minerals are better magicians than others
(i.e., some grains stay dark and thus cant be reorienting light)
Minerals act as
magicians!!
olivine
plag
PPL XPL
Interference colours
white/grey/black
in
quartz, microcline and
plagioclase
much brighter colours
of
ferro-magnesian minerals
including amphibole, pyroxene,
olivine
pearly grey shades
of
calcite
quartz
amphibole

calcite



Liquids, gases, amorphous solids
such as glass, and isotropic
minerals (isometric crystal system)
stay black in all orientations
Review: With any isotropic substance (spherical indicatrix), when
the analyzer is inserted (= crossed-nicols or XPL) no light
passes extinct, even when the stage is rotated
Note: the gray field should also be
extinct (glass and epoxy of the thin
section are also isotropic), but is left
lighter for illustration
Rotating the stage


Anisotropic minerals with an elliptical indicatrix section
change color as the stage is rotated; these grains go black
4 times in 360 rotation-exactly every 90
o
Isotropic: glass or isometric
minerals or look down optic
axis of anisotropic minerals
polarizer
Consider rotating the crystal as you watch:

B = polarizer vibration direction parallel c
only E-ray
Analyzer in extinct





C = polarizer vibration direction || e
only O-ray
also extinct with analyzer
polarizer
c
e
e
c
Materials Science C

Optical properties
Based on: B.S. Mitchell, An introduction to materials engineering
and science for chemical and materials engineers
pp644-659
Optical devices
Examples: mirrors, lenses, beamsplitters, photovoltaic devices
Optical Properties of Materials
Interaction of electromagentic radiation (light) with a material

Absorption
Reflection
Transmission
1 = I
A
/I
0
+ I
R
/I
0
+ I
T
/I
0
1 = A +R +T I
0
= I
A
+ I
R
+ I
T
Total Intensity / Initial Intensity I
0

A material cannot simultaneously be highly
absorptive, reflective and transmissive
Absorptivity
Reflectivity
Transmissivity
Optical Properties of Metals and Alloys
Shininess and inability to transmit visible light indicates
high absorption
high reflection
Incident beam Transmitted beam
Reflected beam
I
0
I
R
= I
0
R
I
0
(1 - R) I
0
(1 - R)e
-l
I
0
R(1 - R)e
-l
I
0
(1 - R)
2
e
-l
l
I
0
- I
R
Incident beam Transmitted beam
Reflected beam
I
0
I
R
= I
0
R
I
0
(1 - R) I
0
(1 - R)e
-l
I
0
R(1 - R)e
-l
I
0
(1 - R)
2
e
-l
l
I
0
- I
R
linear absorption coefficient
dx
dt
dI
| =
(up to R = 1)
and R determine how light interacts with a material
Reflectance and color
UV
Vis
IR
(m)
R

(Hz)
Ag
Au
Cu
Ni
Au
Ag
Cu
Ni
Empty electronic states above occupied levels
Light absorption:
- e
-
promotion
- decay
- reemission
- reflectivity
- dependent on
frequency

- Electronic effects
Reflectance and color - Surface texture
Incident light
Specular reflection
Diffuse reflection
True surface
topography
Average surface
Incident light
Specular reflection
Diffuse reflection
True surface
topography
Average surface
Specular reflection
- smooth or mirror-like surface
Rough surface
Incident light
I
0

I = I
0
cos
Rough surface
Incident light
I
0

I = I
0
cos
Diffuse reflectance
- rough surfaces
- at all angles
- I

= I
0
cos
Photoelectric effect
h
h
=h
c
W
Vacuum level
KE
V = 0
h
h
=h
c
W
Vacuum level
KE
V = 0
Release of electrons due to absorption of light energy
- potential energy barrier for surface electrons is finite
- critical energy for release: = W - E
f
= h
c

- below
c
: no ejection of photoelectrons
- characteristic measure
Photoelectric effect
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Wavelength ()
R
e
l
e
l
e
c
t
r
o
n

e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

Na
K
Rb
Cs
Wavelength () Wavelength ()
R
e
l
e
l
e
c
t
r
o
n

e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

R
e
l
e
l
e
c
t
r
o
n

e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

Photoelectric emission depending on wavelength
- optimal emission at
c

- below
c
: insufficient energy
- above
c
: decrease of electronic excitations efficiency
c

c h
c
h = =
Electromagnetic spectrum
0.4 m
0.5 m
0.6 m
0.7 m
Visible spectrum
wavelength
Wavelength (m)
Energy (eV)
Frequency (Hz)
0.4 m
0.5 m
0.6 m
0.7 m
Visible spectrum
wavelength
0.4 m
0.5 m
0.6 m
0.7 m
Visible spectrum
wavelength
Wavelength (m)
Energy (eV)
Frequency (Hz)
Optical Properties of ceramics and glasses
Refractive index n
- velocity of light in vacuum: c = 299 792 458 m/s
- velocity of light in any other medium: v (v < c)
- refractive index n = c/v

- c can be related to
0
and
0
- v can be related to and
0 0
1
c
= c
c
1
= v
) 1 ( _
c
+
=
r
n
r
n c ~
- ceramics posess small susceptibilities:
Refractive index
Values between ~ 1 and ~ 4
- air: 1.003
- silicate glasses: 1.5 to 1.9
- solid oxide ceramics: ~ 2.7
Dependent on structure-type and packing geometry
- glasses and cubic crystals: n is independent of direction
- other crystal systems: n larger in closed-packed directions
- SiO
2
: glass

= 1.46, tridymite = 1.47, cristobaltite = 1.49
quartz = 1.55

Cristalline silicate vs glass
TEM images
Quartz
Addition of large ions (Pb,
Ba) to
SiO
2
structures increases n
significantly
Refractive index
Mechanical distortions of isotopic glasses changes n
- tensile stress: lower n normal to direction of applied stress
- compression: higher n normal to direction of applied stress
n dependent on frequency of light
Dense flint glass
Light flint glass
Borosilicate glass
Wavelength (m)
R
e
f
r
a
c
t
i
v
e

i
n
d
e
x
Hydrogen F Hydrogen C
Sodium D
Dense flint glass
Light flint glass
Borosilicate glass
Wavelength (m)
R
e
f
r
a
c
t
i
v
e

i
n
d
e
x
Hydrogen F Hydrogen C
Sodium D
d
dn
Dispersion =
Reflection and refraction
Incident beam Reflected beam
Vacuum or air
Glass
Refracted beam

i
i

r
Incident beam Reflected beam
Vacuum or air
Glass
Refracted beam

i
i

r
n can be expressed with the
angles of incidence and refraction
r
i
n
u
u
sin
sin
=
n can be used to describe reflectivity R
2
2
0
) 1 (
) 1 (
+

= =
n
n
I
I
R
R
n and R vary with wavelength
Absorbance and color
Non-reflected light can be transmitted or absorbed
Absorption process is a function of energy (wavelength)
Absorption: fractional change of light intensity
dx
dt
dI
| =
Absorption coefficient is a material property and a
function of the wavelength

t
|
k 4
=
Absorption of photon: excitation of electron from valence to
conduction band. Only if photon energy > band gap
Magnitute of band gap determines if the material
- does not absorb (transparent)
- absorbs certain wavelength (opaque)
g
E h > v
Absorbance and color
Absorption of certain
wavelength results in
color
Ruby
Sapphire
Al
2
O
3
with traces
of Ti
3+
Cr
3+
(m)
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e

(
%
)
Ruby
Sapphire
Al
2
O
3
with traces
of Ti
3+
Cr
3+
(m) (m)
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e

(
%
)
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e

(
%
)
Ruby: Corundum structure with
point defects of Cr
3+

Filled valence band
Empty conduction band
Generating color in ceramics:
Addition of transition elements
with incomplete d band filling
V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni
Light scattering in solids
Pore (n=1)
Incident light ray
Scattered light ray Glass or ceramic
(n>1)
Pore (n=1)
Incident light ray
Scattered light ray Glass or ceramic
(n>1)
Some inherently transparent materials
appear milky: translucency
Scattering
- Pores (n
pore
< n
solid
)
- second-phase particles (SnO
2
) (n
2nd phase
> n
solid
)
Summary
Absorption, Transmission, Reflection
Origin of colors in metals and ceramics
Refractive index
Light scattering
Optical Mineralogy
Optical Mineralogy
Use of the petrographic
microscope
John Winter, Whitman College with some slides Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Why use the microscope??
l Identify minerals (no guessing!)
l Determine rock type
l Determine crystallization sequence
l Document deformation history
l Observe frozen-in reactions
l Constrain P-T history
l Note weathering/alteration
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
The petrographic microscope
Also called a
polarizing
microscope
In order to use the scope, we need to understand a little about the physics
of light, and then learn some tools and tricks
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
What happens as light moves through the scope?
light source
your eye
light ray
waves travel from
source to eye
wavelength,

I = f(A)
amplitude, A
light travels as waves
Frequency = # of waves/sec to pass a
given point (hz)
f = v/ v = velocity
(in physics v = c, but no longer)
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Electromagnetic spectrum & visible portion
Violet (400 nm) Red (700 nm)
White = ROYGBV

(can be separated by dispersion in a prism)
Refraction
Incident ray and reflected ray:
1) Z of incidence i = Z of reflection r'
2) coplanar plane of incidence
( plane of interface)

Refracted ray:
1) Slower in water (or glass)
2) Z r = Z i
Depends on A velocity
Incident
Reflected
air
Refracted
water
i
r
r
For a substance x:
n
x
= v
air
/v
x
n
air
= ??
light is slower in water, glass, crystals
Is n
water
greater or less than 1??
Larger n associated with slower V !!
Snells Law:
n
i
sin i = n
r
sin r
for 2 known media (air/water) sin i/sin r = n
r
/ n
i
= const
So can predict angle change (or use Z to determine n
r
)
Index of refraction
Light beam = numerous
photons, each vibrating in
a different plane
Vibration in all directions
~ perpendicular to
propagation direction
vibration
directions
propagation
direction
What happens as light moves through the scope?
Polarized Light Unpolarized Light
Each photon vibrates as a wave form in a single plane
Light beam =
numerous
photons, all
vibrating in the
same plane
planes of
vibration
1) Light passes through the lower polarizer
west
(left)
east
(right)
Plane polarized light PPL Unpolarized light
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Only the component of light vibrating in E-W
direction can pass through lower polarizer light
intensity decreases
2) Insert the upper polarizer
west (left)
east (right)
Now what happens?
What reaches your eye?
Why would anyone design a microscope that
prevents light from reaching your eye???
XPL=crossed nicols
(crossed polars)
south
(front)
north
(back)
Black!! (extinct)
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
The Optical Indicatrix
Shows how n
i
varies with vibration direction.
Vectors radiating from center
Length of each proportional to n
i
for light vibrating in the
direction of the vector
Indicatrix = surface connecting tips of vectors
(a representational construct only!)
Isotropic media have all n
i
the same (by definition)
What is the shape of an isotropic indicatrix?
Amorphous materials or isometric crystals are (optically)
isotropic with a spherical indicatrix
The Isotropic Indicatrix
A section through the center of an indicatrix all n for light
propagating the section
Conventions:
1) Indicatrix w/ center on interface
surface
2) n (radial vectors of circular section in
this case) same in all possible vibration
directions
Incoming light can (and will) vibrate in the
same direction(s) it did prior to entry
If unpolarized, it will remain so.
Only effect is slower velocity (rep. by
closer symbol spacing)
Fig 6-5 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA


Liquids, gases, amorphous solids such as
glass, and isotropic minerals (isometric
crystal system) stay black in all
orientations
Review: With any isotropic substance (spherical indicatrix), when the analyzer is
inserted (= crossed-nicols or XPL) no light passes extinct, even when the
stage is rotated
Note: the gray field should also be extinct
(glass and epoxy of the thin section are also
isotropic), but is left lighter for illustration
Mineral properties in PPL: relief
Relief is a measure of the relative difference in n
between a mineral grain and its surroundings
Relief is determined visually, in PPL
Relief is used to estimate n
garnet: n = 1.72-1.89
quartz: n = 1.54-1.55
epoxy: n = 1.54
Quartz has low relief
Garnet has high relief
Mineral properties in PPL: relief
Relief is a measure of the relative difference in n
between a mineral grain and its surroundings
Relief is determined visually, in PPL
Relief is used to estimate n
olivine
plag
olivine: n = 1.64-1.88
plag: n = 1.53-1.57
epoxy: n = 1.54
- Olivine has high relief
- Plagioclase has low relief
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
What causes relief?
n
xtl
> n
epoxy
n
xtl
< n
epoxy
n
xtl
= n
epoxy

Hi relief (+) Lo relief (+) Hi relief (-)
Difference in speed of light (n) in different materials causes refraction
of light rays, which can lead to focusing or defocusing of grain edges
relative to their surroundings
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Now insert a thin section of a rock in XPL
west (left)
east (right)
Light vibrating E-W
How does this work??
Unpolarized light
Light vibrating in many
planes and with many
wavelengths
Light and colors
reach eye!
north
south
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Conclusion has to be that minerals somehow reorient the planes in which
light is vibrating; some light passes through the upper polarizer
But, note that some minerals are better magicians than others (i.e.,
some grains stay dark and thus cant be reorienting light)
Minerals act as
magicians!!
olivine
plag
PPL XPL
O E
Double images:
Ray 2 rays with different
propagation and vibration
directions
Each is polarized ( each other)

Fig 6-7 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Anisotropic crystals
Calcite experiment and double refraction
O-ray (Ordinary)
Obeys Snell's Law and goes
straight
Vibrates plane containing ray
and c-axis (optic axis)
E-ray (Extraordinary)
deflected
Vibrates in plane containing ray
and c-axis
..also doesn't vibrate
propagation, but we'll ignore
this as we said earlier
Both rays vibrate parallel to the incident
surface for normal incident light, so the
interface x-section of the indicatrix is still
valid, even for the E-ray
Thus our simplification of vibration
propagation works well enough
From now on we'll treat these two rays as
collinear, but not interacting, because it's the
vibration direction that counts
O E
Fig 6-7 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
IMPORTANT: A given ray of incoming light is
restricted to only 2 (mutually perpendicular)
vibration directions once it enters an anisotropic
crystal
Called privileged directions
Each ray has a different n
e = n
o

c = n
E

in the case of calcite e < c
which makes the O-ray dot appear above
E-ray dot

Some generalizations and vocabulary
Amorphous materials and isometric minerals (e.g., garnet) are isotropic they cannot
reorient light. These minerals are always extinct in crossed polars (XPL).
All other minerals are anisotropic they are all capable of reorienting light (acting as
magicians).
All anisotropic minerals contain one or two special propagation directions that do not
reorient light.
Minerals with one special direction are called uniaxial
Minerals with two special directions are called biaxial
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
n > 1 for anisotropic substances
n = f(vibration direction)
Indicatrix no longer a sphere
Indicatrix = ellipsoid
Note: continuous function, smooth ellipsoid.
Hexagonal and tetragonal crystals have one unique
crystallographic axis (c axis) 2 identical ones
The optical properties reflect this as well: ellipsoid of
rotation about c (optically uniaxial) and c = the optic axis
Fig 6-10 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Uniaxial ellipsoid and conventions:
(-) crystal:
e > c
oblate
(+) crystal:
c > e
prolate
Fig 6-11 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Circular Section
optic axis: all e's
Principal Sections
have e and true c: max & min n's
Random Sections (c' and e)
All sections have e!!

Any non-circular cut through the
center of a uniaxial indicatrix will
have e as one semiaxis and c' (or
true c) as the other
Fig. 6-12
Depending on light propagation we can have:
O E
Fig 6-7 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Fig 6-8 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Calcite experiment and double refraction
Circular Section: all rays are O-rays and vibrate parallel e
Fig 6-13 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Random Section: O-ray vibrates parallel e
E-ray vibrates parallel c'
Optic Axis
Fig 6-13 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Principal section:
This is essentially the same as random, but here c' is really true c.
In this case both rays really do vibrate propagation & follow same path (as we
have simplified the random case)
We shall consider random and principal as alike, only the value of c varies.
Optic Axis
Fig 6-13 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Essentially 2 possibilities
(light coming toward you)
1. Circular section
Light prop. || OA
All vibration directions
c are the same n
O E
Fig 6-7 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Optic Axis
Fig 6-13 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Like isotropic
(no unique plane containing ray and c-axis)
Only one ray (O-ray) with n = e (doesnt split to two
rays)
Extinct with analyzer in and stays that way as rotate
stage (behaves as though isotropic)
If incident light is unpolarized it will remain so
Essentially 2 possibilities
(light coming toward you)
2 rays
Only 2 privileged vibration directions
O-ray with n = e
E-ray with n = c or c (depending on section)
Does not stay same as rotate (more later)
Fig. 6-12
O E
Fig 6-7 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
2. Elliptical section
Any orientation other than
circular
B-C: Polarized parallel c and e
Transmits only one ray! (no
component parallel to the other
privileged direction)
Note convention here:
Light slows upon entering xl. Since
frequency (& color) is about same,
the slowing is illustrated by more
compressed wave forms (they
spend more time in the xl), so
vibrate more times (vibrate more
per length traveled)
A: Unpolarized
Ray splits into c and e
This figure rotates the light source
(we rotate the crystal)
Fig 6-17 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA

D: Polarized at random angle

Resolves into components
parallel c and parallel e





Rotating the stage


Anisotropic minerals with an elliptical indicatrix section change
color as the stage is rotated; these grains go black 4 times in 360
rotation-exactly every 90
o
Isotropic: glass or isometric minerals
or look down optic axis of
anisotropic minerals
polarizer
Consider rotating the crystal as you watch:

B = polarizer vibration direction parallel c
only E-ray
Analyzer in extinct





C = polarizer vibration direction || e
only O-ray
also extinct with analyzer
polarizer
c
e
e
c
Consider rotating the crystal as you watch:

D

Polarized light has a component of each
Splits two rays
one is O-ray with n = e
other is E-ray with n = c
When the rays exit the crystal they recombine

c
e
polarizer
REVIEW
Calcite: Fig 6-7
2 rays, each polarized
vibrate each other & in plane
of incidence
Indicatrix- uniaxial
Random Section
O-ray vibrates parallel e
E-ray vibrates parallel c'
Principal section
Circular section
c' and e = privileged vibration directions
Optic Axis
Optic Axis
O E
Interference
A: Particles in phase if displaced from rest position by same amount in same
direction
a
1
- a
2
- a
3
are all in phase
b
1
- b
2
- b
3
are also all in phase (but not with a
1
)
particles perfectly out of phase: equal-but-opposite displacement
b
1
and c
1
are not, since in an instant it won't work
Fig 7-1 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Path Difference (A) = distance between any 2 points on a wave form
usually expressed as x
A between any 2 points in phase = i (i=any integer)
A between any 2 points perf. out of phase = (
(2i+1)
/
2
)

B: Instant later with a second ray entering
C: Shows algebraic sum interference composite ray
If both waves in phase constructive interference with amplitude greater than either
(intensity = A
2
)
Interference
Interference of light polarized in perpendicular planes
This works in air & isotropic media, but not in crystals
where vibrate independently
Now we're ready for a big step
Fig 7-2 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Interference
Plane polarized light enters xl. & resolved into 2
rays (if not || optic axis), which vibrate each
other & travel at different velocities (since have
different n)
Will thus travel diff # of (even if
frequency same or similar)
So if in phase when enter, won't be when
exit!!
The path diff (A) between O-ray and E-ray
= t (|e-c'|) (t = thickness)
absolute value because the
crystal can be (+) or (-)
A then = t(N-n) and each mineral has a
~unique e and c, A is thus a function of
the thickness, the mineral observed, and
the orientation
Fig 7-3 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Interference
2 crystals of equal t, but
different An
i

A: n =
1
/
2
N
n=small ref index
N=large " "
slow ray requires 2
periods & fast only
one
thus come out
polarized in same
plane as entered
no transmission by
analyzer in XPL
E
E
W W
N
N
S
S
Fig 7-4 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Interference
2 crystals of equal t,
but different An
i

B: n =
3
/
4
N
Slow ray requires 2
periods & fast 1.5
100%
transmission by
analyzer in XPL
E
E
W W
N
N
S
S
Fig 7-4 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Transmission by the Analyzer
Determined by:
a) Angle between analyzer and polarizer (fixed
at 90
o
)
b) Angle between polarizer and closest
privileged direction of xl
When polarizer || either privileged vibration
direction extinct, since only one ray & it's
cancelled
Every crystal goes extinct 4 times in 360
o
rotation
(unless isotropic)
Transmission by the Analyzer
c) A = path difference = t (N-n)
Fig. 7-4 t(N-n) = 1 0% transmission
t(N-n) = 1.5 100% transmission
Fig 7-6 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Transmission by the Analyzer
Determined by:
d) of light a new concept
in part (c) A has been expressed in terms of
...but it's really an absolute retardation, some finite # of
nm (or A or miles)
If the transmitted light is white (mixed), each wavelength
will be retarded t(N-n) by the same absolute distance,
which will be a different x/
Transmission by the Analyzer
Example: assume xl has t(N-n) that will retard A = 550 m & viewed 45
o
off
extinction (max intensity)

retardation 550 550 550 550 550 550
selected light 400 440 489 550 629 733
1
3
/
8
1
1
/
4
1
1
/
8
1
7
/
8

3
/
4

You can see 550 m gets no transmission & others varying amount
retardation 550 550 550 550 550 550
selected light 400 440 489 550 629 733
1
3
/
8
1
1
/
4
1
1
/
8
1
7
/
8

3
/
4


no green &
more red-
violet
interference
color
Fig 7-7 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
retardation 800 800 800 800 800 800 800
selected light 400 426 457 550 581 711 800
2 1
7
/
8
1
3
/
4
1
1
/
2

7
/
8
1
1
/
8
1

Dashed
curve: no
red or violet
& more
green
Fig 7-7 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Color chart
Colors one observes when polars are crossed (XPL)
Color can be quantified numerically: o = n
high
- n
low

Color chart
Shows the relationship between retardation, crystal
thickness, and interference color
550 m red violet
800 m green
1100 m red-violet again (note repeat |)
0-550 m = 1
st
order 550-1100 m = 2
nd

order 1100-1650 m = 3
rd
order...
Higher orders are more pastel
1) Find the crystal of interest showing the highest
colors (A depends on orientation)
2) Go to color chart
thickness = 30 microns
use 30 micron line + color, follow radial line through
intersection to margin & read birefringence
Suppose you have a mineral with second-order green
What about third order yellow?
Estimating birefringence
Example: Quartz e = 1.544 c = 1.553
Data from Deer et al
Rock Forming Minerals
John Wiley & Sons
Example: Quartz e = 1.544 c = 1.553
Sign??
(+) because c > e
c - e = 0.009 called the birefringence (o) =
maximum interference color (when seen?)
What color is this?? Use your chart.
Color chart
Colors one observes when polars are crossed (XPL)
Color can be quantified numerically: o = n
high
- n
low

Example: Quartz e = 1.544 c = 1.553
Sign??
(+) because c > e
c - e = 0.009 called the birefringence (o) =
maximum interference color (when see this?)
What color is this?? Use your chart.
For other orientations get c' - e progressively lower color
Rotation of the stage changes the intensity, but not the hue
Extinct when either privileged direction N-S (every 90
o
) and maximum interference color
brightness at 45
o
360
o
rotation 4 extinction positions exactly 90
o
apart
So far, all of this has been orthoscopic (the normal way)
All light rays are ~ parallel and vertical as they pass through the
crystal
Orthoscopic
viewing
Fig 7-11 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
xl has particular interference color =
f(biref, t, orientation)
Points of equal thickness will have the
same color
isochromes = lines connecting points
of equal interference color
At thinner spots and toward edges
will show a lower color
Count isochromes (inward from thin
edge) to determine order
What interference color is this?
If this were the maximum interference color seen, what is the birefringence of the
mineral?
Conoscopic Viewing
A condensing lens below the stage and a Bertrand lens
above it
Arrangement essentially folds planes of Fig 7-11 cone
Light rays are refracted by
condensing lens & pass through
crystal in different directions
Thus different properties
Only light in the center of field of
view is vertical & like ortho
Interference Figures Very
useful for determining optical
properties of xl
Fig 7-13 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
How interference figures work (uniaxial example)
Bertrand
lens
Sample
(looking down OA)
sub-stage
condenser
Converging lenses force light rays to
follow different paths through the
indicatrix
W E-W polarizer
N-S polarizer
What do we see??
Effects of multiple cuts through indicatrix
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Uniaxial Interference Figure
Fig. 7-14
O E
Circles of isochromes
Note vibration directions:
e tangential
c' radial & variable magnitude
Black cross (isogyres) results from locus of
extinction directions
Center of cross (melatope) represents optic
axis
Approx 30
o
inclination of OA will put it at
margin of field of view
Uniaxial Figure
Centered axis figure as 7-14: when rotate
stage cross does not rotate
Off center: cross still E-W and N-S, but
melatope rotates around center
Melatope outside field: bars sweep
through, but always N-S or E-W at center
Flash Figure: OA in plane of stage Diffuse
black fills field brief time as rotate
Fig. 7-14
Accessory Plates
We use an insertable 1-order red (gypsum) plate
Accessory Plates
We use an insertable 1-order red (gypsum) plate
Slow direction is marked N on plate
Fast direction (n) || axis of plate
The gypsum crystal is oriented and cut so that A
= (N-n) 550nm retardation
it thus has the effect of retarding the N ray 550
nm behind the n ray
If insert with no crystal on the stage 1-order
red in whole field of view
Fig 8-1 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Accessory Plates
Suppose we view an anisotropic crystal with A =
100 nm (1-order gray) at 45
o
from extinction
If N
gyp
|| N
xl
Addition
Ray in crystal || N
gyp
already
behind by 100nm & it gets
further retarded by 550nm in
the gypsum plate
100 + 550 650nm
What color (on your color
chart) will result?
Original 1
o
grey 2
o
blue
Accessory Plates
Now rotate the microscope stage and crystal 90
o

N
gyp
|| n
xl
(A still = 100 nm)
N
gyp
|| n
xl
Subtraction
Ray in the crystal that is parallel
to N
gyp
is ahead by 100nm
550m retardation in gypsum
plate 450nm behind
What color will result?
1
o
orange
What will happen when you insert the gypsum plate?
What will happen when you insert the gypsum plate?
Optic Sign Determination
For all xls remember c' vibrates in plane of ray and OA, e
vibrates normal to plane of ray and OA
1) Find a crystal in which the optic axis (OA)
is vertical (normal to the stage). How
would you do that?
2) Go to high power, insert condensing and
Bertrand lenses to optic axis
interference figure
(+) crystal:
c > e
so e faster
O E
c
' c
'
c '
c
'
e
e
e
e
Fig 7-13 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Optic Sign Determination
Inserting plate for a (+) crystal:
subtraction in NW & SE where n||N
addition in NE & SW where N||N
Whole NE (& SW) quads add 550nm
isochromes shift up 1 order
Isogyre adds red
In NW & SE where subtract
Each isochrome loses an order
Near isogyre (~100nm)
get 450 yellow in NW & SE (100-550)
and 650 blue in NE & SW (100+550)
(+) crystal:
c > e
so e faster
c
' c
'
c '
c
'
e
e
e
e
add
add
sub
sub
(+) OA Figure with plate
Yellow in NW is (+)
(+) OA Figure without plate
Optic Sign Determination
Inserting plate for a (-) crystal:
subtraction in NE & SW where n||N
addition in NW & SE where N||N
Whole NW (& SE) quads add 550nm
isochromes shift up 1 order
Isogyre still adds red
In NE & SW where subtract
Each isochrome loses an order
Near isogyre (~100nm)
get 650 blue in NW & SE
and 450 yellow in NE & SW
(-) crystal:
c < e
so e slower
c
'
c
'
c
'
c
'
e
e
e
e
add
sub add
sub
(-) OA Figure with plate
Blue in NW is (-)
(-) OA Figure without plate
(same as (+) figure)
Can determine the refractive index of a
mineral by crushing a bit up and immersing
the grains in a series of oils of known
refractive index.
When the crystal disappears perfectly n
mineral

= n
oil
The trick is to isolate e and true c by getting
each E-W (parallel to the polarized light)
Orienting crystals to determine e and c
To measure e only (if all grains of a single mineral):
1) Find a grain with low interference colors- ideally a
grain that remains extinct as the stage is rotated
2) (check for centered OA figure)
3) Determine optic sign while you're at it (for use
later)
4) Back to orthoscopic : all rays are e
5) Compare n
xl
to n
oil
Orienting crystals to determine e and c
Now look at the other crystals of the same
mineral:
If the crystals are randomly oriented in a
slide or thin section you may see any
interference color from gray-black (OA
vertical) to the highest color possible for
that mineral (OA in plane of stage and see
e and true c).
Orienting crystals to determine e and c
To measure c :
1) Find a grain with maximum interference colors
2) (Check for flash figure?)
3) Return orthoscopic at lower power
4) Rotate 45
o
from extinction (either direction)





5) Figure out whether c is NE-SW or NW-SE & rotate it to E-
W extinction
6) Then only c coming through!
Oils are then used n
must redo with each new oil as get closer! Ugh!
Orienting crystals to determine e and c
(+) xl c > e so e faster
(-) xl e > c so c faster
Thus whole grain will gain a color when N
xl
|| N
gyp

i.e. slow direction is NE-SW
Changes in absorption color in PPL as rotate
stage (common in biotite, amphibole)
Pleochroic formula:
Example: Tourmaline:
c = dark green to bluish
e = colorless to tan
Can determine this as just described by
isolating first e and then c E-W and
observing the color
Pleochroism
Hornblende as stage is rotated
Biotite as stage is rotated
Biaxial Crystals
Orthorhombic, Monoclinic, and Triclinic crystals don't
have 2 or more identical crystal axes
The indicatrix is a general ellipsoid with three unequal,
mutually perpendicular axes
One is the smallest possible n and one the largest
o = smallest n (fastest)
| = intermediate n
= largest n (slowest)

The principal vibration directions are x, y, and z ( x
|| o, y || |, z || )

By definition o < o' < | < '<
Fig 10-1 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Biaxial Crystals
If o < | < then there must be some point
between o & with n = |
Because = | in plane, and true | is normal to
plane, then the section containing both is
a circular section
Has all of the properties of a circular section!
If look down it:
all rays = |
no preferred vibration direction
polarized incoming light will remain so
unpolarized
thus appear isotropic as rotate stage

o
Looking down true |
= |
Biaxial Crystals
If o < | < then there must be some point
between o & with n = |

o
Looking down true |
= |
optic axis by definition
OA
Biaxial Crystals
If o < | < then there must be some point
between o & with n = |
optic axis by definition

And there must be two! Biaxial

Orthorhombic, Monoclinic, and
Triclinic minerals are thus biaxial
and Hexagonal and tetragonal
minerals are uniaxial

o
Looking down true |
= |
= |
OA OA
Biaxial Crystals
Nomenclature:
2 circular sections 2 optic
axes Must be in o- plane =
Optic Axial Plane (OAP)
Y || | direction OAP = optic
normal
Fig 10-2 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Acute angle between OA's = 2V
The axis that bisects acute angle = acute bisectrix = B
xa

The axis that bisects obtuse angle = obtuse bisectrix = B
xo

Biaxial Crystals
B(+) defined as Z () = B
xa

Thus | closer to o than to

o
Looking down true |
= |
= |
OA OA
Biaxial Crystals
B(-) defined as X (o) = B
xa

Thus | closer to than to o

o
Looking down true |
= |
= |
OA
OA
Let's see what happens to unpolarized light travelling in
various directions through a biaxial crystal
Light will propagate with normal incidence to:
Both = O-rays
Both polarized, and vibrate each other (as uniaxial)
One ray vibrates || Z and has n = and the other vibrates || Y and n = |
...or Z and X or Y and X
1) Principal Plane -
Includes 2 of the 3 true
axes or principal vibration
directions
Fig 10-11C Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Let's see what happens to unpolarized light travelling in
various directions through a biaxial crystal
Light will propagate with normal incidence to:
This is identical to uniaxial:
1 O-ray and 1 E-ray
and o' or | and '
... vibration in incident plane so indicatrix works!
2) Semi-random Plane
Includes one principal vibration
direction
Fig 10-11B Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Vibration directions of 2 rays in all 3 cases are mutually
perpendicular, and || to the longest and shortest axes of the
indicatrix ellipse cut by the incident plane
This is the same as with uniaxial, only the names change
3) Random Plane
No principal vibration directions
2 E-rays
One vibrates in the OWZ' plane and || OZ with n =
'
The other vibrates in the OWX' plane and || OX
with n = o

Fig 10-11A Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
4) Circular Section (either one)
Acts as any circular section:
Unpolarized remains so
Polarized will pass through polarized in the same direction
as entered with n = |
extinct in XPL and remains so as rotate stage


o
Looking down true |
= |
= |
OA OA
Review
Fig 10-10 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
black
black
Biaxial Interference Figures
B
xa
figure (B
xa
is vertical on stage)
As in uniaxial, condensing lens causes rays to emanate out from O
OX OS OA
results in decreasing
retardation (color) as
|
OA OT OU
Increase again, but
now because | o
OX OQ OP
incr retardation
(interference colors)
OR is random with o' and '
Fig 10-14 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Biaxial Interference Figures
B
xa
figure

Result is this pattern
of isochromes for
biaxial crystals
Fig 10-15 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Biaxial Interference Figures
Biot-Fresnel Rule: for
determining privileged
vibration directions of
any light ray from path
and optic axes
Calcite Expt: no longer a
single plane
containing ray and OA
Vibration directions
bisect angle of planes
as shown
Fig 10-9A Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Biaxial Interference Figures
Application of B-F rule to
conoscopic view B
xa

figure
+ = bisectrices of optic
axis planes
Isogyres are locus of all
N-S (& E-W) vibration
directions
Since incoming light
vibrates E-W, there will
be no N-S component
extinct
Fig 10-16 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Biaxial Interference Figures
Centered B
xa
Figure
Fig 10-16 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Biaxial Interference Figures
Same figure rotated 45
o
Optic axes are now E-W
Clearly isogyres must swing
Demonstration
Fig 10-16B Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
As rotate
Centered Optic Axis Figure Large 2V:


B
xa
Figure with Small 2V:
Not much
curvature
Makes use of
B
xa
awful
Always use optic axis figures
Easiest to find anyway. Why?
B
xo
looks like B
xa
with 2V > 90
o

Random Figures: Isogyre sweeps through
field (not parallel x-hair at intersection, so
can recognize from uniaxial even with this
odd direction)
Useless if far from OA
Biaxial Optic Sign
B(-) a = B
xa
thus b closer to g
Fig. 11-1A
add
add
subtract
100 gray + 550
650 blue
100 gray - 550
450 yellow
Biaxial Optic Sign
B(-) o = B
xa
thus | closer to (in stage)
add
subtract
add
Centered B
xa
2V = 35
o
Centered B
xa
2V = 35
o
With accessory plate
Biaxial Optic Sign
B(+) = B
xa
thus | closer to o (in stage)
Fig. 11-1A
sub
sub
add
Always use Optic Axis Figure & curvature of
isogyre to determine optic sign
How find a crystal for this?
Blue in NW is (-) still works
Estimating 2V
OAP
Fig 11-5A Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Sign of Elongation

If || elongation will
always add
length slow
If o || elongation will always
subtract length fast
U(+) will also
length slow
U(-) will also length
fast
o
Sign of Elongation
|
If | || elongation
Sometimes will add length slow
Sometimes will subtract length fast

|
o
Platy minerals may appear
elongated too
Can still use sign of elongation on
edges
Optical Mineralogy in a Nutshell
Use of the petrographic microscope in
three easy lessons
Part II
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Quick review
Isotropic minerals velocity changes as light enters mineral,
but then is the same in all directions thru xtl;
no rotation or splitting of light.
Anisotropic minerals light entering xtls is split and
reoriented into two plane-polarized components that
vibrate perpendicular to one another and travel w/
different speeds.
Uniaxial minerals have one special direction along which light
is not reoriented; characterized by 2 RIs.
Biaxial minerals have two special directions along which light
is not reoriented; characterized by 3 RIs.
These minerals are characterized by a single RI
(because light travels w/ same speed throughout
xtl)
Weve talked about minerals as magicians -
now lets prove it!
calcite
ordinary
ray, e
(stays stationary)
extraordinary
ray, c
(rotates)
calcite
single light ray coming into cc is split into two
rays are refracted different amounts
rays have different velocities, hence different RIs
stationary ray=ordinary, rotating ray=extraordinary
because refraction of c is so large, cc must have hi o
(remember: o = n
hi
- n
lo
)

Conclusions from calcite experiment
If we were to look straight down c-axis, we would see
only one star no splitting!
C-axis is optic axis
(true for all uniaxial minerals, but unfortunately not for biaxial minerals)
More on this in a few minutes
Back to birefringence/interference colors
Observation:
frequency of
light remains unchanged
during splitting,
regardless of material
F= V/
if light speed changes,
must also change
is related to color; if
changes, color also changes
mineral
grain
plane polarized
light
fast ray
(low n)
slow ray
(high n)
lower polarizer
A=retardation
d
Light waves may be in phase or out of phase when they
exit xtl

When out of phase, some component of light gets
through upper polarizer and displays an
interference color

When one of the vibration directions is parallel to the
lower polarizer, no light gets through the upper
polarizer and the grain is at extinction (=black)
Interference phenomena
See Nesse p. 41, 46-48
mineral
grain
plane polarized
light
fast ray
(low n)
slow ray
(high n)
lower polarizer
A=retardation
d
At time t, when slow ray 1
st
exits xtl:
Slow ray has traveled distance d
Fast ray has traveled distance d+A
time = distance/rate
Slow ray: t = d/V
slow


Fast ray: t= d/V
fast
+ A/V
air


Therefore: d/V
slow
= d/V
fast
+ A/V
air

A = d(V
air
/V
slow
- V
air
/V
fast
)

A = d(n
slow
- n
fast
)

A = d o

A = thickness of t.s. x birefringence
Birefringence/interference colors
Retardation in nanometers
T
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

i
n

m
i
c
r
o
n
s

birefringence
Remember determining optic sign last week with the gypsum plate?
blue in NE = (+)
Gypsum plate has constant A of
530 nm = 1
st
-order pink

Isogyres = black: A=0
Background = gray: A=100

Add or subtract 530 nm:

530+100=630 nm = blue = (+)
530-100=430 nm = yellowish = (-)

Addition = slow + slow
Subtraction = slow + fast
Lets look at interference colors in a natural thin section:
Note that different grains of the same mineral show
different interference colors why??
ol
ol
ol
ol
ol
ol
plag
plag
plag
plag
plag
plag
Different grains of same mineral are in different orientations
If every grain of the same mineral
looks different, how are we ever going
to be able to identify anything??
Time for some new tricks: the optical indicatrix
Thought experiment:
Consider an isotropic mineral (e.g., garnet)
Imagine point source of
light at garnet center;
turn light on for fixed
amount of time, then map
out distance traveled by
light in that time
What geometric shape is defined by mapped light rays?
Isotropic indicatrix
Soccer ball
(or an orange)
Light travels the same
distance in all directions;
n is same everywhere,
thus o = n
hi
-n
lo
= 0 = black
anisotropic minerals - uniaxial indicatrix
quartz
calcite
c-axis
c-axis
Lets perform the same thought experiment
Uniaxial indicatrix
c-axis
c-axis
Spaghetti squash = uniaxial (+)
tangerine = uniaxial (-)
quartz
calcite
Circular section is perpendicular to the stem (c-axis)
Uniaxial indicatrix
Uniaxial indicatrix
(biaxial ellipsoid)
n
c
n
e
a=X
c=Z
b=Y
n
c
a=X
c=Z
n
e
b=Y
What can the indicatrix tell us about
optical properties of individual grains?
n
e
- n
e
= 0
therefore, o=0: grain stays black
(same as the isotropic case)
n
c
n
e
a=X
c=Z
b=Y
n
e
n
e
Propagate light along the c-axis, note what
happens to it in plane of thin section
Grain changes color upon rotation.
Grain will go black whenever indicatrix
axis is E-W or N-S
n
c
n
e
This orientation will show the maximum o of the mineral
n
c

n e

n
c
- n
e
> 0
therefore, o > 0
N
S
W E
Now propagate light perpendicular to c-axis
anisotropic minerals - biaxial indicatrix
clinopyroxene
feldspar
Now things get a lot more complicated
Biaxial indicatrix
(triaxial ellipsoid)
OA OA
2V
z
Y
X
Z
n
|
n

n
o
n
|
n
|
n

n
o
n

n
|
n
o
n
|
The potato!
2V
z

There are 2 different ways to cut this and get a circle
Alas, the potato (indicatrix) can have any orientation
within a biaxial mineral
c
a
b
Z
X
Y
Y
a
Z
b
X
c
olivine
augite
but there are a few generalizations that we can make
The potato has 3 perpendicular principal axes of
different length thus, we need 3 different RIs
to describe a biaxial mineral
X direction = n
o
(lowest)
Y direction = n
|
(intermed; radius of circ. section)
Z direction = n

(highest)
Orthorhombic: axes of indicatrix coincide w/ xtl axes
Monoclinic: Y axis coincides w/ one xtl axis
Triclinic: none of the indicatrix axes coincide w/ xtl axes
OA OA
2V
z
Y
X
Z
n
|
n

n
o
2V: a diagnostic property of biaxial minerals
When 2V is acute about Z: (+)
When 2V is acute about X: (-)
When 2V=90, sign is indeterminate
When 2V=0, mineral is uniaxial
2V is measured using an interference figure
More in a few minutes
How interference figures work (uniaxial example)
Bertrand
lens
Sample
(looking down OA)
substage
condensor
Converging lenses force light
rays to follow different paths
through the indicatrix
W E
N-S polarizer
What do we see??
Effects of multiple cuts thru indicatrix
Biaxial interference figures
There are lots of types of biaxial figures well concentrate on only two
1. Optic axis figure - pick a grain that stays dark on rotation
Will see one
curved isogyre
determine 2V from curvature of isogyre
90 60 40
See Nesse p. 103
determine sign w/ gyps
(+) (-)
2. Bxa figure (acute bisectrix) - obtained when you are looking straight
down between the two O.A.s. Hard to find, but look for a grain with
intermediate o.

Biaxial interference figures
Use this figure to get sign and 2V:
(+)
2V=20 2V=40 2V=60
See Nesse p. 101
OA OA
2V
z
Y
X
Z
n
|
n

n
o
Quick review:
Indicatrix gives us a way to relate optical phenomena to
crystallographic orientation, and to explain differences
between grains of the same mineral in thin section
OA OA
2V
z
Y
X
Z
n
|
n

n
o
hi o
OA OA
2V
z
Y
X
Z
n
|
n

n
o
lo o
Isotropic? Uniaxial? Biaxial? Sign? 2V?
All of these help us to uniquely identify unknown minerals.
Mafic Igneous Minerals
Olivine, Pyroxene, Amphiboles, Micas
So far
What are the most important mineral (groups)
that we have viewed so far
Quartz (not a group but hey its everywhere)
Feldspar
Plagioclase
Alkali Feldspar

3 of the 6 most important minerals you will ever see
What are the other 3
Pyroxene

Amphiboles

Micas

Olivine, we had to stick it somewhere even though
it is not as common as the ones above
Olivine
Lets get it out of the way
Nesosilicate
Stronger bonds
close packing of ions

What does that mean
Higher index of refraction
Higher hardness

Olivine
It is actually a group of minerals
Lumped together to be called Olivine
End members
Fayalite (Iron Silicate)
Generally darker because it has iron
Heavier, higher index of refraction
Forsterite (Magnesium Silicate)

Sadly its really tough to tell them apart
So we just lump them as Olivine
Micas
Phyllosilicates
Most of these are flat and platy
Lots of smooth and flat ones, also powders

Micas are a group of minerals as well containing
30 minerals
You need to know all 30

Well there are 2- 3 big ones
Muscovite and Biotite
Thin platy minerals that we have seen before
Biotite is generally brown to black
Muscovite is white, silver, yellow, green

Not really going to say to much more

However glauconite is one of the important ones.
Homework, go home and find out why I think it is important
I am serious
Amphiboles
Chain silicates (single or double)
Inosilicates

Dark minerals in hand sample
Oblique cleavage 120
Generally have strong pleochroism
Hornblende
Glaucophane
What did these look like in PPL?
Amphiboles
constituent of igneous rocks
often making up the dark colored fraction of minerals in an
igneous rock (sounds familiar)
Hornblende is one common variety
You don't generally find amphiboles and pyroxenes together
The presence of amphiboles indicates high pressure and the
presence of fluorine and gaseous water (hence the hydroxyls)
High pressure conditions suitable for the formation of
amphiboles occur at great depth or under a tectonic load.
Pyroxenes
Chain silicates
Pyroxene means fire and stranger
Because the greeks wanted to pick cool words for rocks
to get undergrads interested in geology

(actually because they form in volcanic glass and they
were thought to be impurities)
Pyroxene (ortho and Clino)
First off tell them apart in hand sample from
amphibole by their 90 Cleavage

Generally form in high temperate magmas with
a lack of water.
If there is water amphiboles would most likely form

Difference between clino and ortho comes from which
crystal system they form under
More on that later in the year
Pyroxene (ortho/clino,)
SiO6
Pyroxenes are an important constituent in igneous rocks
Dark specks or are the reason for an overall dark color of a
rock
Most often confused with amphiboles which are similar in
color and occurrence
Distinguished by their cleavage angles. A mnemonic we grad
students use goes like this: the "x" in pyroxene indicates cross-
wise (square) cleavage.
Pyroxenes are readily altered to other minerals such as calcite
or limonite
Monoclinic and Orthorombic
Pyroxene
Augite
Wollastonite
Diopside
Enstatite
Hypersthene
This contains
both ortho
And clino



Microscope stuff

Parallel and inclined extinction
Inclined--mineral is dark when the crystal
face of cleavage face forms an angle with
the crosshairs of the microscope. The
extinction angle is a diagnostic property of
minerals. Hornblend is an example. All
biaxial minerals excluding orthorhombic
minerals have inclined extinction.

Parallel--mineral is dark when the crystal
face or cleavage face is parallel to the
crosshairs of microscope. An example is
biotite. All uniaxial minerals have parallel
extinction, but so do orthorhombic biaxial
minerals (olivine, orth-pyroxenes).


Olivine
Moderately high relief
Clear, occasionally very light yellowish
or greenish
No cleavage
Commonly rimmed with greenish
alteration products (A)
Internal fracturing of grains common
(B)
Never occurs with quartz


Orthopyroxene
All have low birefringence
(first order red
maximum),

parallel extinction,
87 degree cleavage.
Pale green, pale red, or
pale purple pleochroism
occurs in some grains.

Distinguished from
clinopyroxene by low order
interference colors and
parallel extinction

Notice the extinction

Clinopyroxene
generally difficult to distinguish between
individuals in this group optically.
All are
moderate relief
up to second order birefringence colors,
87 degree cleavage

and inclined extinction


Amphiboles
Cleave angle
Green brown pleo



muscovite
Birds eye extinction
gives the mineral a pebbly appearance as it
passes into extinction. This is caused when
the grinding tools used to create
petrographic slides of precise widths alter
the alignment of the previously perfect basal
cleavage planes which split micas up into its
characteristic thin sheets. The resulting,
slightly roughened surface alters the
extinction angle of various parts of the
crystal lattice, leading to this type of
extinction

high birefringence
parallel extinction
and excellent basal cleavage


Biotite
strong pleochroism in brown,
reddish brown, and green
hornblende has similar
pleochroic colors and can be
confused with biotite,
hornblende has inclined
extinction, not parallel
extinction.
Little black dots are
radiation damage


Optical Mineralogy in a Nutshell
Use of the petrographic microscope in
three easy lessons
Part III
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
JENIS PENGAMATAN
ORTOSKOPIS
KONOSKOPIS
Sinar-sinar yang datangnya sejajar
Sinar-sinar yang datangnya kerucut (lensa kondensor)
PPL (nikol sejajar)
XPL (nikol bersilang)
Warna, pleokroisme, habit (bentuk), indek bias,
belahan, relief, ukuran
Bias rangkap (BF), orientasi, pemadaman,
sumbu optik, tanda optik, kembaran
IDENTIFIKASI MINERAL
OPAQ
TEMBUS CAHAYA
(Transparan)
ISOTROP
ANISOTROP
Tak terjadi perubahan warna
Terjadi perubahan warna
Tak ada bias rangkap (BF)
Terdapat bias rangkap (BF)
Contoh: Mineral bijih, gelas
Contoh: RFM
Mikroskop Polarisasi
Mengacu pada indek warna
MINERAL PEMBENTUK BATUAN
MAFIK
FELSIK
Relief tinggi
Berwarna
BF kuat
Relief rendah
Tak berwarna/ transparan
BF lemah
Mineral Silikat
Mineral Non-Silikat
Oksida (hematit, magnetit, rutil)
Sulfida (pirit, spalerit, galena, kalkopirit)
Phospat (apatit)
Sulfat (anhidrit, gipsum)
Karbonat (kalsit, aragonit, dolomit)
(Seri Bowen, 1928)
A few new properties, and then some review
Cleavage number and orientation of cleavage
planes

Twinning type of twinning, orientation

Extinction angle parallel or inclined? Angle?

Habit characteristic form of mineral
Cleavage
Most easily observed in PPL (upper polarizer out), but visible in XN as well
No cleavages: quartz, olivine
1 good cleavage: micas
2 good cleavages: pyroxenes, amphiboles
Cleavage
2 cleavages
intersecting
at ~90 pyroxene
60
120
2 cleavages
intersecting
at 60/120:
amphibole
Cleavage
random fractures, no
cleavage:
olivine
Twinning
Presence and style of twinning can be diagnostic
Twins are usually most obvious in XN (upper polarizer in)
Twinning - some examples
Clinopyroxene (augite)
Plagioclase
Simple twin on {100}
Simple (Carlsbad) twin on (010)
Pericline twin on (h01)
Polysynthetic albite twins on (010)
Extinction angle
Extinction behavior is a function of the relationship between indicatrix
orientation and crystallographic orientation
n
c
n
e
a=X
c=Z
b=Y
c
a
b
Z
X
Y
parallel extinction inclined extinction
Extinction angle parallel extinction
All uniaxial minerals show parallel extinction
Orthorhombic minerals show parallel extinction
(this is because xtl axes and indicatrix axes coincide)
PPL XN
orthopyroxene
Extinction angle - inclined extinction
Monoclinic and triclinic minerals:
indicatrix axes do not coincide with crystallographic axes
These minerals have inclined extinction
(and extinction angle helps to identify them)
clinopyroxene
extinction angle
Habit or form
blocky
acicular
bladed
prismatic
anhedral/irregular
elongate
rounded
fibrous
tabular
euhedral
Habit or form
blocky
acicular
bladed
prismatic
anhedral/irregular
elongate
rounded
fibrous
tabular
euhedral
Review techniques for identifying unknown minerals
Start in PPL:
Color/pleochroism
Relief
Cleavages
Habit
Then go to XN:
Birefringence
Twinning
Extinction angle
Uniaxial or biaxial?
2V if biaxial
Positive or negative?
Go to Nesse or similar book
Chemical formula
Symmetry
Uni or biaxial, (+) or (-)
RIs: lengths of indicatrix axes
Birefringence
2V if biaxial
Diagrams:
* Crystallographic axes
* Indicatrix axes
* Optic axes
* Cleavages
* Extinction angles
Another example
Then read text re color, pleochroism, habit, cleavage, twinning, distinguishing
features, occurrence make sure properties match your observations. If not,
check another mineral
Crystallographic axes: a, b, c
Indicatrix axes: X, Y, Z or c, e
Optic axes
Cleavages
Extinction angles
On to real rocks
good luck and have fun!
Mineral optik
2 SKS teori
by:
hill. gendoet hartono
Semester 3, 2009-2010
Selasa, jam 09.50 10.40
jam 10.40 11.35
Thin section
Thin rectangular slice of rock that light can pass through.
One side is polished smooth and then
stuck to a glass slide with epoxy resin
The other side is ground to 0.03 mm thickness, and then
polished smooth.
May be covered with a thin glass cover slip
0.03 mm
Petrographic
Microscope
Ocular Lens
Objective Lens
Stage
Substage Assembly
Including lower polarizer
Light and blue filter
Upper Polarizer
Focus
Identifikasi Mineral
Opaq
Transparan
Warna
Bentuk
Belahan
Indek Refraksi
Anisotropis Isotropis
BF/ Biasrangkap
Biaxial
Uniaxial
Opaque Mineral
Sulphides and oxides
PPL does not pass through
Minerals looks black in PPL regardless of orientation of mineral or
polarizers
Mineral cannot be identified in transmitted light; needs reflected
light
Opaque mineral in granite
Rotated 45
o
in PPL
Transparent mineral
PPL passes through the 30m thickness of the thin section
The electromagnetic light waves interact with the electrons in
the minerals and slow down
The higher the density of electrons the slower the light wave
travels


CPX in gabbro
PPL
MINERAL PEMBENTUK BATUAN

SILICATES CONTAIN SILICON - OXYGEN
MOLECULE (SiO)

NON-SILICATES (NO SiO)

NON-SILICATE MINERALS
Make up 5% of Earths continental crust
Native metals: gold, silver, copper
Carbonates: calcite (used in cement)
Oxides: hematite (iron ores)
Sulfides: galena (lead ores)
Sulfates: gypsum (used in plaster)
SILICATE MINERALS
QUARTZ (SiO
2
)
FELDSPARS (PLAGIOCLASE - (Na,Ca)(Si,Al)
4
O
8
) )
MICAS (MUSCOVITE -KAl
2
(AlSi
3
O
10
)(F, OH)
2
,
BIOTITE - K (Fe, Mg)
3
AlSi
3
O
10
(F, OH)
2
)
AMPHIBOLES (Hornblende -Ca
2
(Fe,Mg)
5
Si
8
O
22
(OH
2
) )
PYROXENES (Augite {Mg,Fe}SiO
3
)
OLIVINE - (Mg, Fe)
2
SiO
4
,
FELSIC SILICATE MINERALS
FELSIC SILICATES HIGH % SiO
QUARTZ (100% SiO
2
)
FELDSPARS
MUSCOVITE MICA (KAl
2
(AlSi
3
O
10
)(F, OH)
2
MAFIC SILICATE MINERALS
MAFIC SILICATES - LESS SiO
BIOTITE MICA
AMPHIBOLE
PYROXENE
ULTRAMAFIC SILICATES
ULTRA MAFIC SILICATES - VERY LOW % SiO
VERY RARE AT SURFACE
OLIVINE
Olivine
Moderately high relief
Clear, occasionally very
light yellowish or
greenish
No cleavage
Commonly rimmed with
greenish alteration
products (A)
Internal fracturing of
grains common (B)
Never occurs with quartz
Fracture
Morfologi
Komposisi
Ciri-ciri
Asal-usul
Umumnya membentuk fenokris di dalam
batuan beku, prismatik, belahan rectangular
tidak jelas, pada alterasi garis retakan
melengkung.
End member Fosterit (Mg) dan Fayalit (Fe).
BF tinggi, tanpa belahan, rekahan melengkung
terisi oleh produk alterasi.
Mineral mafik dan ultramafik batuan beku,
Penyusun utama matel Bumi.
Magnesium/ Mg Besi/ Fe
Orthopyroxene
All have low birefringence
(first order red maximum),

parallel extinction,
87 degree cleavage.
Pale green, pale red, or pale
purple pleochroism occurs in
some grains.

Distinguished from
clinopyroxene by low order
interference colors and
parallel extinction

Notice the extinction
Clinopyroxene
generally difficult to
distinguish between
individuals in this group
optically.
All are
moderate relief
up to second order
birefringence colors,
87 degree cleavage

and inclined extinction
Morfologi
Komposisi
Ciri-ciri
Asal-usul
Umumnya membentuk kristal prismatik
euhedral.
Mg/(Mg + Fe); Enstatit (100-88 mol %);
bronzit (88-70); hipersten (70-50); fero-
hipersten (50-30); eulit (30-12); ferosilit
(12-0).
Low BF
Bronzit dan hipersten dijumpai dalam gabro
tholeiit, diabas dan andesit kapur-alkali; orto
piroksin dalam batuan beku.
Morfologi
Komposisi
Ciri-ciri
Asal-usul
Kristal jarang berbentuk euhedral karena
kristalisasi akhir antara kristal bentukan-
awal; tumbuh sebagai reaksi rim disekitar
ortopiroksin.
Klinopiroksin miskin Ca yang mengandung 10 mol %
komponen wolastonit.
Pigeonit lebih bersih dibanding augit.
Umumnya piroksin miskin Ca dalam batuan subalkalin
yang mempunyai Mg/(Mg+Fe) < 0,7.
Morfologi
Komposisi
Ciri-ciri
Asal-usul
Penyusun utama batuan beku alkalin mafik dan
subalkalin. Dalam batuan alkalin mengandung sejumlah
Na atau Ti. Dalam batuan subalkalin berasosiasi dengan
ortopiroksin atau pigeonit.
Umumnya berbentuk prisma dalam batuan beku alkalin
mafik dan andesit augit, tetapi di dalam batuan tholeiit
cenderung anhedral.
Komplit solid solution antara diopsit dan hedenbergit.
Komposisi menengah dalam batuan tholeiit, sedikit Ca.
Warna lebih cerah dibanding pigeonit dan sedikit terubah.
Morfologi
Komposisi
Ciri-ciri
Asal-usul
Kristalin prismatik panjang tetapi mungkin
juga membentuk rim pada kristal augit.
Solid solution dari augit ke aegirin dengan
perubahan warna cerah ke hijau dengan
peningkatan substitusi NaFe. Kristal umumnya
zona dari augit di inti ke arah luar aegirin-augit
ke aegirin pada rim.
Dibedakan oleh warna hijau rumput transparan
cerah; hijau amfibol sedikit transparan. Belahan
menyudut, pemadaman menyudut kecil.
Terjadi pada batuan beku kaya Na. Mungkin
berasosiasi dengan nefelin dan sodalit tetapi
juga terjadi dengan kuarsa pada syenit alkali
dan granit.
Morfologi
Komposisi
Ciri-ciri
Asal-usul
Meniang hingga berserabut.
Solid solution kearah diopsit, dalam eklogit
larutan ini luas, membentuk piroksin ompasit.
BF rendah, punya belahan tapi berbeda dengan
piroksin lain, pemadaman paralel.
Stabil pada tekanan tinggi, terbatas hingga pada
batuan metamorf skis glaukopan, eklogit.
Amphiboles
Cleave angle
Green brown pleo

Morfologi
Komposisi
Ciri-ciri
Asal-usul
Berbentuk agregat dan berbutir prismatik di dalam batuan
metamorf. Hadir sebagai fenokris, prisma bersisi 6 dalam
batuan beku, cenderung memanjang dalam batuan beku
asam.
Antara tremolit-aktinolit dan pargasit-ferohastingsit.
Umumnya tidak mudah dibedakan secara optik dari aktinolit.
BF kuat.
Salah satu RFM. Mineral feromagnesian dalam batuan beku
kapur alkali. Mineral utama dalam batuan beku mafik yang
termetamorkan.
Biotite
strong pleochroism in
brown, reddish brown,
and green
hornblende has
similar pleochroic
colors and can be
confused with
biotite, hornblende
has inclined
extinction, not
parallel extinction.
Little black dots are
radiation damage
Morfologi
Komposisi
Ciri-ciri
Asal-usul
Berbentuk kristal tabular dalam batuan granit, dalam batuan
gabro mengkristal terakhir berbentuk anhedral.
Sangat luas, substitusi Mg Fe, Al Si. Kandungan Ti
berwarna merah tua, kandungan Fe berwarna hijau.
Pleokroik, belahan 1, pemadaman paralel. BF kuat.
Salah satu RFM. Mineral feromagnesian dalam batuan beku
granit. Mineral utama dalam batuan beku menengah seperti
granodiorit, diorit, monzonit. Biotit dengan magnesium tinggi
terjadi dalam kimberlit.
Plagioklas-XPL
Plagioklas-XPL
Morfologi
Komposisi
Ciri-ciri
Asal-usul
Berbentuk prismatik tabular di dalam batuan beku. Hadir
sebagai fenokris, cenderung membentuk lath tabular dalam
batuan beku tetapi unhedral.
Anotit-bitownit-labradorit-andesin-oligoklas-albit.
Relief rendah, mempunyai banyak kembaran, albit, carlsbad,
carlsbad-albit, periklin.
Salah satu RFM. Umum dijumpai di seluruh kerak Bumi.
muscovite
Birds eye extinction
gives the mineral a pebbly
appearance as it passes into
extinction. This is caused when
the grinding tools used to create
petrographic slides of precise
widths alter the alignment of
the previously perfect basal
cleavage planes which split
micas up into its characteristic
thin sheets. The resulting,
slightly roughened surface
alters the extinction angle of
various parts of the crystal
lattice, leading to this type of
extinction

high birefringence
parallel extinction
and excellent basal
cleavage
Morfologi
Komposisi
Ciri-ciri
Asal-usul
Berbentuk kristal tabular paralel. Didalam batuan pegmatit
muskovit berbentuk prisma sisi 6.
Substitusi Na K menghasilkan paragonit, Mg atau Fe Al.
Beberapa muscovit mengandung proporsi silika tinggi.
Pemadaman paralel, pemadaman mata burung. BF kuat.
Umum di dalam batuan skis pelitik yang terbentuk pada suhu
rendah hingga menengah pada metamorfisme regional. Umum
berasosiasi pada batuan pegmatit dan granit alumina.
Kuarsa-XPL
Morfologi
Komposisi
Ciri-ciri
Asal-usul
Jarang berbentuk euhedral kecuali di dalam vein. Polymorf
alpha suhu rendah dan beta suhu tinggi. Berbentuk prisma
pada kuarsa suhu rendah.
Relief rendah, warna interferensi kuning pucat hingga
kehijauan, pemadaman undulatori.
Umum pada kerak benua. Komponen utama pada granit,
batuan sedimen dan metamorf. Umum dijumpai atau
terbentuk dalam vein.