02b Optical Properties Detail

Optical Mineralogy
Optical Mineralogy
Use of the petrographic

microscope
John Winter, Whitman College with some slides Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
Why use the microscope??
Identify minerals (no guessing!)

Determine rock type
Determine crystallization sequence
Document deformation history
Observe frozen-in reactions
Constrain P-T history
Note weathering/alteration
Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003
The petrographic microscope

Also called a
polarizing
microscope
In order to use the scope, we need to understand a little about

the physics of light, and then learn some tools and tricks
What happens as light moves through the scope?

your eye
amplitude, A
wavelength,
light ray
light travels
as waves
I = f(A)
waves travel from
source to eye
light source
Frequency = # of waves/sec to pass

a given point (hz)
f = v/l
v = velocity
(in physics v = c, but no longer)
Electromagnetic spectrum & visible portion

Violet (400 nm) Red (700 nm)
White = ROYGBV
(can be separated by dispersion in a prism)
Refraction
Incident ray and reflected ray:
1) of incidence i = of reflection r'
2) coplanar plane of incidence
Incident
(^ plane of interface)
i
air
Reflected
Refracted ray:
1) Slower in water (or glass)
2) r i
Depends on D velocity
water
r
Refracted
Index of refraction
For a substance x:
nx = vair/vx
nair = ??
light is slower in water, glass, crystals
Is nwater greater or less than 1??
Larger n associated with slower V !!
Snells Law:
ni sin i = nr sin r
for 2 known media (air/water) sin i/sin r = nr / ni = const
So can predict angle change (or use to

determine nr)
What happens as light moves through the scope?

Each photon vibrates as a wave form in a single plane
propagation
direction
Light beam =
numerous
photons, all
vibrating in
the same
plane
planes of
vibration
vibration
directions
Polarized Light
Light beam = numerous

photons, each vibrating
in a different plane
Vibration in all
directions ~
perpendicular to
propagation direction
Unpolarized Light
1) Light passes through the lower polarizer

west
(left)
Unpolarized light
Plane polarized light PPL

east
(right)
Only the component of light vibrating in E-W

direction can pass through lower polarizer
light intensity decreases
2) Insert the upper polarizer

west (left)
north
(back)
east (right)
south
(front)
Black!! (extinct)
Now what happens?

What reaches your eye?
Why would anyone design a microscope that
prevents light from reaching your eye???
XPL=crossed nicols
(crossed polars)
The Optical Indicatrix

Shows how ni varies with vibration direction.
Vectors radiating from center
Length of each proportional to ni for light vibrating
in the direction of the vector
Indicatrix = surface connecting tips of vectors

(a representational construct only!)
Isotropic media have all ni the same (by definition)

What is the shape of an isotropic indicatrix?
Amorphous materials or isometric crystals are
(optically) isotropic with a spherical indicatrix
The Isotropic Indicatrix

A section through the center of an indicatrix all n
for light propagating ^ the section
Conventions:
1) Indicatrix w/ center on interface
surface
2) n (radial vectors of circular

section in this case) same in all
possible vibration directions
Incoming light can (and will) vibrate
in the same direction(s) it did
prior to entry
If unpolarized, it will remain so.
Fig 6-5 Bloss, Optical
Crystallography, MSA
Only effect is slower velocity (rep.

by closer symbol spacing)
Review: With any isotropic substance (spherical
indicatrix), when the analyzer is inserted (= crossednicols or XPL) no light passes extinct, even when
the stage is rotated
Note: the gray field should also be

extinct (glass and epoxy of the thin
section are also isotropic), but is left
lighter for illustration
Liquids, gases, amorphous solids

such as glass, and isotropic
minerals (isometric crystal system)
stay black in all orientations
Mineral properties in PPL: relief

Relief is a measure of the relative difference in n
between a mineral grain and its surroundings
Relief is determined visually, in PPL
garnet: n = 1.72-1.89
Relief is used to estimate n
quartz: n = 1.54-1.55
epoxy:
n = 1.54
Quartz has low relief
Garnet has high relief
Mineral properties in PPL: relief

Relief is a measure of the relative difference in n
between a mineral grain and its surroundings
Relief is determined visually, in PPL
Relief is used to estimate n
- Olivine has high relief

- Plagioclase has low relief
plag
olivine
olivine: n = 1.64-1.88
plag:
n = 1.53-1.57
epoxy: n = 1.54
What causes relief?

Difference in speed of light (n) in different materials causes
refraction of light rays, which can lead to focusing or
defocusing of grain edges relative to their surroundings
Hi relief (+)
Lo relief (+)
nxtl > nepoxy
nxtl = nepoxy
Hi relief (-)
nxtl < nepoxy
Now insert a thin section of a rock in XPL

west (left)
north
south
Unpolarized light
east (right)
Light vibrating E-W

Light vibrating in
many planes and
with many
wavelengths
Light and colors

reach eye!
How does this work??

Conclusion has to be that minerals somehow

reorient the planes in which light is vibrating;
some light passes through the upper polarizer
plag
olivine
PPL
Minerals act as
magicians!!
XPL
But, note that some minerals are better magicians than others
(i.e., some grains stay dark and thus cant be reorienting light)
Anisotropic crystals
Calcite experiment and double refraction
O
O-ray
(Ordinary)
Double
images:
Obeys Snell's Law and goes

Ray
2 rays with
straight
different
Vibrates ^ plane containing

propagation
andaxis)
ray
and c-axis (optic
vibration
directions
E-ray
(Extraordinary)
deflected
Each is
polarized ( ^
Vibrates
plane containing
eachinother)
ray and c-axis

..also doesn't vibrate ^

propagation, but we'll
ignore this as we said
earlier
IMPORTANT: A given ray of

incoming light is restricted to
Both
rays vibrate
parallel to
only
2 (mutually
perpendicular)
the incident
surface
forit
vibration
directions
once
normalanincident
light,crystal
so the
enters
anisotropic
interface x-section of the
indicatrix
is stilldirections
valid, even
Called
privileged
for the E-ray
Each ray has a different n
Thus our simplification of
w = no ^ propagation works
vibration
well
e = enough
n

From
nowcase
on we'll
treat these
in the
of calcite
w<e
two rays as collinear, but not
which
makes the
O-ray dot
appear
interacting,
because
it's
the
above E-ray dot
vibration direction that
counts
Some generalizations and vocabulary
Amorphous materials and isometric minerals (e.g., garnet)

are isotropic they cannot reorient light. These minerals
are always extinct in crossed polars (XPL).
All other minerals are anisotropic they are all capable
of reorienting light (acting as magicians).
All anisotropic minerals contain one or two special
propagation directions that do not reorient light.
Minerals with one special direction are called uniaxial
Minerals with two special directions are called biaxial
n > 1 for anisotropic substances

n = f(vibration direction)
Indicatrix no longer a sphere
Indicatrix = ellipsoid
Note: continuous function, smooth ellipsoid.
Hexagonal and tetragonal crystals have one unique

crystallographic axis (c axis) ^ 2 identical ones
The optical properties reflect this as well:
ellipsoid of rotation about c (optically uniaxial)
and c = the optic axis
Uniaxial ellipsoid and conventions:

(-) crystal:
w>e
oblate
(+) crystal:
e>w
prolate
Depending on light propagation we can have:

Fig. 6-12
Circular Section
^ optic axis: all w's
Principal Sections
have w and true e: max & min n's
Random Sections (e' and w)

All sections have w!!
Any non-circular cut through

the center of a uniaxial
indicatrix will have w as one
semiaxis and e' (or true e) as
the other
Calcite experiment and double refraction

O


Circular Section:
all rays are O-rays and vibrate parallel w
Optic Axis
Random Section:

O-ray vibrates parallel w

E-ray vibrates parallel e'

Optic Axis
Principal section:
This is essentially the same as random, but here e' is really true e.
In this case both rays really do vibrate ^ propagation & follow same
path (as we have simplified the random case)
We shall consider random and principal as alike, only the value of e
varies.
Essentially 2 possibilities
(light coming toward you)
1. Circular section
Light prop. || OA
All vibration
directions ^c are the

same n

Optic Axis

Like isotropic
(no unique plane containing ray and c-axis)

Only one ray (O-ray) with n = w (doesnt split to
two rays)
Extinct with analyzer in and stays that way as
rotate stage (behaves as though isotropic)
If incident light is unpolarized it will remain so
Essentially 2 possibilities
(light coming toward you)
2. Elliptical section
Any orientation
other than circular
Fig. 6-12
2 rays
Only 2 privileged vibration directions
O-ray with n = w
E-ray with n = e or e (depending on
section)
Does not stay same as rotate (more later)

B-C: Polarized parallel e

and w at random
D: Polarized
Transmits
only one ray! (no
angle
component parallel to the
other privileged direction)
Note
convention
here:
Resolves
into
Light
slows upon entering
xl.
components
parallel
Since frequency (& color) is
e and
wis
about
same,parallel
the slowing
illustrated by more compressed
wave forms (they spend more
time in the xl), so vibrate more
times (vibrate more per length
traveled)
A: Unpolarized
Ray splits into e and w
This figure rotates the light source
(we rotate the crystal)
Rotating the stage

Anisotropic minerals with an elliptical indicatrix section
change color as the stage is rotated; these grains go black
4 times in 360 rotation-exactly every 90o
polarizer
Isotropic: glass or isometric
minerals or look down optic
axis of anisotropic minerals
Consider rotating the crystal as you watch:

B = polarizer vibration direction parallel e
only E-ray
Analyzer in extinct
e
w
polarizer
C = polarizer vibration direction || w

only O-ray
also extinct with analyzer
Consider rotating the crystal as you watch:

D
Polarized light has a component of each
e
polarizer
Splits two rays
one is O-ray with n = w

other is E-ray with n = e
When the rays exit the crystal they

recombine
REVIEW
Calcite: Fig 6-7
2 rays, each polarized

vibrate ^ each other & in
plane of incidence
Indicatrix- uniaxial
Optic Axis
Random Section
O-ray vibrates parallel w
E-ray vibrates parallel e'
Principal section
Circular section
e' and w = privileged vibration directions
Optic Axis
Interference

A: Particles
inlater
phase
if
displaced
from
rest
position
B:
Instant
a second
ray
entering
Path
Difference
(D) =with
distance
between
any
2
points by
on asame
waveamount
form in
same direction
usually
expressed
as
xl
C:
Shows
algebraic
sum
interference composite ray

a1 - a2 - a3 are all in phase
D between any 2 points in phase = il (i=any integer)
b1 - waves
b2 - b3 are
also all
in phase
(but not with
a1)
If both
in phase
constructive
interference
with
(2i+1)
D between
anyout
2 of
points
out of phasedisplacement
=(
/2) l
particles
perfectly
phase:perf.
equal-but-opposite
2
amplitude greater than either (intensity = A )
b1 and c1 are not, since in an instant it won't work
Interference
Interference of light polarized in perpendicular planes

This works in air & isotropic media, but not in
crystals where vibrate independently
Now we're ready for a big step
Interference
Plane polarized light enters xl. & resolved

into 2 rays (if not || optic axis), which
vibrate ^ each other & travel at different
velocities (since have different n)
Will thus travel diff # of l (even if
frequency same or similar)
So if in phase when enter, won't be
when exit!!
The path diff (D) between O-ray and
E-ray = t (|w-e'|)
(t = thickness)
absolute value because the

crystal can be (+) or (-)
D then = t(N-n) and each mineral

has a ~unique w and e, D is thus a
function of the thickness, the
mineral observed, and the
orientation
Interference
N
S
2 crystals of equal t,
but different Dni
A: n = 1/2 N

W
E
W
E
n=small ref index

N=large "
"
slow ray requires 2
periods & fast only
one
thus come out
polarized in same
plane as entered
no transmission
by analyzer in XPL
Interference
N
S
2 crystals of equal
t, but different
Dni

B:
n = 3/4 N
W
E
W
E
Slow ray requires

2 periods & fast
1.5
100%
transmission by
analyzer in XPL
Transmission by the Analyzer

Determined by:
a) Angle between analyzer and polarizer
(fixed at 90o)
b) Angle between polarizer and closest
privileged direction of xl
When polarizer || either privileged

vibration direction extinct, since
only one ray & it's cancelled
Every crystal goes extinct 4 times in
360o rotation (unless isotropic)

c) D = path difference = t (N-n)
Fig. 7-4
t(N-n) = 1l 0% transmission
t(N-n) = 1.5l 100% transmission


Determined by:
d) l of light
a new concept
in part (c) D has been expressed in terms of l
...but it's really an absolute retardation, some

finite # of nm (or A or miles)
If the transmitted light is white (mixed), each
wavelength will be retarded t(N-n) by the same

absolute distance, which will be a different x/l

Example: assume xl has t(N-n) that will retard D = 550 mm & viewed 45o
off extinction (max intensity)
retardation
selected light l
550
400
550
440
550
489
550
550
550
629
550
733
13/8 l
11/4 l
11/8 l
1l
7/
8
3/
4
You can see 550 mm gets no transmission & others varying amount
retardation 550
selected light l 400
550
440
550
489
13/8 l 11/4 l 11/8 l
no green &
more redviolet
interference
color

550
550
1l
550
629
550
733
7/
8
3/
4
retardation 800 800 800

selected light l 400 426 457
800
550
800
581
2 l 17/8 l 13/4 l 11/2 l 7/8 l
Dashed
curve:
no red
or violet
& more
green

800 800
711 800
1 1/8 l 1 l
Color chart
Colors one observes when polars are crossed (XPL)
Color can be quantified numerically:
d = nhigh - nlow
Color chart
Shows the relationship between retardation,
crystal thickness, and interference color
550 mm red violet

800 mm green
1100 mm red-violet again (note repeat )
0-550 mm = 1st order
550-1100 mm =
2nd order 1100-1650 mm = 3rd order...
Higher orders are more pastel
Estimating birefringence
1) Find the crystal of interest showing the
highest colors (D depends on orientation)
2) Go to color chart
thickness = 30 microns
use 30 micron line + color, follow radial line
through intersection to margin & read
birefringence
Suppose you have a mineral with second-order green
What about third order yellow?
Example: Quartz w = 1.544
e = 1.553
Data from Deer et al

Rock Forming Minerals
John Wiley & Sons
e = 1.553
Sign??
(+) because e > w
e - w = 0.009 called the birefringence (d)
= maximum interference color (when seen?)
What color is this?? Use your chart.
Color chart
Colors one observes when polars are crossed (XPL)
Color can be quantified numerically:
d = nhigh - nlow
e = 1.553
Sign??
(+) because e > w
e - w = 0.009 called the birefringence (d)
= maximum interference color (when see this?)
What color is this?? Use your chart.

For other orientations get e' - w progressively
lower color
Rotation of the stage changes the intensity, but not the

hue
Extinct when either privileged direction N-S (every 90o)
and maximum interference color brightness at 45o
360o rotation 4 extinction positions exactly 90o apart
So far, all of this has been orthoscopic (the normal way)

All light rays are ~ parallel and vertical as they pass
through the crystal
Orthoscopic
viewing
xl has particular interference

color = f(biref, t, orientation)
Points of equal thickness will

have the same color
isochromes = lines connecting

points of equal interference
color
At thinner spots and toward

edges will show a lower color
Count isochromes (inward from
thin edge) to determine order
What interference color is this?
If this were the maximum interference color seen, what

is the birefringence of the mineral?
Conoscopic Viewing
A condensing lens below the stage and a Bertrand
lens above it
Arrangement essentially folds planes of Fig 7-11 cone

Light rays are refracted by

condensing lens & pass
through crystal in
different directions
Thus different properties
Only light in the center of
field of view is vertical &
like ortho
Interference Figures
Very useful for
determining optical
properties of xl
How interference figures work (uniaxial example)

Converging lenses force light
rays to follow different paths
through the indicatrix
Bertrand
lens
N-S polarizer
What do we see??
Sample
(looking down OA)
sub-stage
condenser
Effects of multiple cuts through indicatrix
E-W polarizer
Uniaxial Interference Figure
Fig. 7-14
Circles of isochromes
Note vibration directions:
w tangential
e' radial & variable magnitude
Black cross (isogyres) results from

locus of extinction directions
Center of cross (melatope) represents
optic axis
Approx 30o inclination of OA will put it
at margin of field of view
Uniaxial Figure
Centered axis figure as 7-14: when

rotate stage cross does not rotate
Off center: cross still E-W and N-S,

but melatope rotates around center
Fig. 7-14
Melatope outside field: bars sweep

through, but always N-S or E-W at
center
Flash Figure: OA in plane of stage

Diffuse black fills field brief time as
rotate
Accessory Plates
We use an insertable 1-order red (gypsum) plate
Accessory Plates
We use an insertable 1-order red (gypsum)

plate
Slow direction is marked N on plate
Fast direction (n) || axis of plate
The gypsum crystal is oriented and cut so

that D = (N-n) 550nm retardation
it thus has the effect of retarding the N

ray 550 nm behind the n ray

If insert with no crystal on the stage 1order red in whole field of view
Accessory Plates
Suppose we view an anisotropic crystal with
D = 100 nm (1-order gray) at 45o from extinction
If Ngyp || Nxl Addition

Ray in crystal || Ngyp
already behind by 100nm &
it gets further retarded by
550nm in the gypsum plate
100 + 550 650nm
What color (on your color
chart) will result?
o
o
Original 1 grey 2 blue
Accessory Plates
Now rotate the microscope stage and

o
crystal 90 Ngyp || nxl (D still = 100 nm)
Ngyp || nxl Subtraction
Ray in the crystal that is

parallel to Ngyp is ahead by
100nm
550mm retardation in
gypsum plate 450nm
behind
What color will result?
o
1 orange
What will happen when you insert the gypsum plate?
What will happen when you insert the gypsum plate?
Optic Sign Determination

For all xls remember e' vibrates in plane of ray and
OA, w vibrates normal to plane of ray and OA
O
w
e'
e'
w
e' w
e' w
(+) crystal:
e > w
so w faster
1) Find a crystal in which the optic

axis (OA) is vertical (normal to the
stage). How would you do that?
2) Go to high power, insert condensing
and Bertrand lenses to optic axis
interference figure


Inserting plate for a (+) crystal:
subtraction in NW & SE where n||N
w
e'
sub add
add sub
e'
w
e' w
e' w
addition in NE & SW where N||N

Whole NE (& SW) quads add 550nm
isochromes shift up 1 order
Isogyre adds red
(+) crystal:
In NW & SE where subtract
e > w
Each isochrome loses an order
so w faster
Near isogyre (~100nm)
get 450 yellow in NW & SE (100-550)
and 650 blue in NE & SW (100+550)
(+) OA Figure without plate

(+) OA Figure with plate
Yellow in NW is (+)

Inserting plate for a (-) crystal:
w
e'
subtraction in NE & SW where n||N

e' w
addition in NW & SE where N||N
Whole NW (& SE) quads add 550nm
add sub
sub add
e'
w
e'
isochromes shift up 1 order
Isogyre still adds red
(-) crystal:
In NE & SW where subtract
e < w
Each isochrome loses an order
so w slower
Near isogyre (~100nm)
get 650 blue in NW & SE
and 450 yellow in NE & SW
(-) OA Figure without plate

(same as (+) figure)
(-) OA Figure with plate
Blue in NW is (-)
Orienting crystals to determine w and e

Can determine the refractive index of
a mineral by crushing a bit up and
immersing the grains in a series of
oils of known refractive index.
When the crystal disappears perfectly
nmineral = noil
The trick is to isolate w and true e by
getting each E-W (parallel to the
polarized light)

To measure w only (if all grains of a single
mineral):
1) Find a grain with low interference
colors- ideally a grain that remains
extinct as the stage is rotated
2) (check for centered OA figure)
3) Determine optic sign while you're at
it (for use later)
4) Back to orthoscopic : all rays are w
5) Compare nxl to noil

Now look at the other crystals of the
same mineral:
If the crystals are randomly oriented
in a slide or thin section you may see
any interference color from grayblack (OA vertical) to the highest
color possible for that mineral (OA in
plane of stage and see w and true e).

To measure e :
1) Find a grain with maximum interference colors

2) (Check for flash figure?)
3) Return orthoscopic at lower power
4) Rotate 45o from extinction (either direction)
(+) xl e > w so w faster

(-) xl w > e so e faster
Thus whole grain will gain a color when Nxl
|| Ngyp
slow direction
is NE-SW
5) Figure outi.e.
whether
e is NE-SW
or NW-SE &
rotate it to E-W extinction
6) Then only e coming through!
Oils are then used n
must redo with each new oil as get closer! Ugh!
Pleochroism
Changes in absorption color in PPL as

rotate stage (common in biotite,
amphibole)
Pleochroic formula:
Example: Tourmaline:
e = dark green to bluish
w = colorless to tan
Can determine this as just described

by isolating first w and then e E-W
and observing the color
Hornblende as stage is rotated
Biotite as stage is rotated
Biaxial Crystals
Orthorhombic, Monoclinic, and Triclinic crystals

don't have 2 or more identical crystal axes
The indicatrix is a general ellipsoid with three

unequal, mutually perpendicular axes
One is the smallest possible n and one the largest
a = smallest n
(fastest)
b = intermediate n
g = largest n
(slowest)
The principal vibration directions
are x, y, and z ( x || a, y || b, z || g)
By definition a < a' < b < g '< g
Biaxial Crystals
If a < b < g then there must be some

point between a & g with n = b
Because = b in plane, and true b is
normal to plane, then the section
containing both is a circular section
Has all of the properties of a circular
=b
section!
a If look down it:
all rays = b
no preferred vibration direction
polarized incoming light will
remain so
unpolarized
thus appear isotropic as rotate

stage
Looking down true b
Biaxial Crystals
OA
^ optic axis by definition

=b
a
Looking down true b
Biaxial Crystals
g
OA

OA
^ optic axis by definition

=b
a
=b
Looking down true b
And there must be two! Biaxial
Orthorhombic, Monoclinic, and

Triclinic minerals are thus
biaxial and Hexagonal and
tetragonal minerals are uniaxial
Biaxial Crystals
Nomenclature:
2 circular sections
2 optic axes
Must be in a-g plane
= Optic Axial Plane
(OAP)
Y || b direction ^
OAP = optic normal

Acute angle between OA's = 2V

The axis that bisects acute angle = acute bisectrix = Bxa
The axis that bisects obtuse angle = obtuse bisectrix = Bxo
Biaxial Crystals
g
OA
B(+) defined as Z (g) = Bxa

Thus b closer to a than to g
OA
=b
a
=b
Looking down true b
Biaxial Crystals
B(-) defined as X (a) = Bxa

Thus b closer to g than to a
=b
OA
a
OA
=b
Looking down true b
Let's see what happens to unpolarized light travelling

in various directions through a biaxial crystal
Light will propagate with normal incidence to:
Fig 10-11C Bloss, Optical
1) Principal Plane Includes 2 of

the 3 true axes
or principal
vibration
directions
Both = O-rays
Both polarized, and vibrate ^ each other (as uniaxial)
One ray vibrates || Z and has n = g and the other vibrates || Y and n = b
...or Z and X or Y and X
Let's see what happens to unpolarized light travelling

in various directions through a biaxial crystal
Light will propagate with normal incidence to:
2) Semi-random Plane
Includes one
principal vibration
direction
Fig 10-11B Bloss, Optical
This is identical to uniaxial:

1 O-ray and 1 E-ray
g and a' or b and g'
... vibration in incident plane so indicatrix works!
3) Random Plane
No principal vibration directions
2 E-rays
One vibrates in the OWZ' plane
and || OZ
with n = g'
The other vibrates in the OWX'

plane and || OX
with n = a
Fig 10-11A Bloss, Optical

Vibration directions of 2 rays in all 3 cases are mutually

perpendicular, and || to the longest and shortest axes of
the indicatrix ellipse cut by the incident plane
This is the same as with uniaxial, only the names change
g
OA
4) Circular Section (either one)
OA
Acts as any circular section:

Unpolarized remains so
=b
a
=b
Polarized will pass through polarized
in the same direction as entered

with n = b
extinct in XPL and remains so as

rotate stage
Looking down true b
Review

Biaxial Interference Figures

Bxa figure (Bxa is vertical on stage)
As in uniaxial, condensing lens causes rays to emanate out

from O
black
OX OS OA
black
results in decreasing
retardation (color) as
gb
OA OT OU
Increase again, but
now because b a
OX OQ OP
incr retardation
(interference colors)
OR is random with a' and g'

Bxa figure
Result is this
pattern of
isochromes for
biaxial crystals

Biot-Fresnel Rule:
for determining
privileged vibration
directions of any
light ray from path
and optic axes
Calcite Expt: no
longer a single
plane containing
ray and OA
Vibration directions
bisect angle of
planes as shown


Application of B-F
rule to conoscopic
view Bxa figure
= bisectrices of
optic axis planes
Isogyres are locus of
all N-S (& E-W)
vibration directions
Since incoming light
vibrates E-W, there
will be no N-S
component
extinct


Centered Bxa Figure


Same figure rotated 45
Optic axes are now E-W

Clearly isogyres must swing
Demonstration
Fig 10-16B Bloss, Optical

As rotate
Centered Optic Axis Figure Large 2V:

Not much
curvature
Makes use of
Bxa awful
Bxa Figure with Small 2V:
Always use optic axis figures

Easiest to find anyway. Why?
o
Bxo looks like Bxa with 2V > 90
Random Figures: Isogyre sweeps
through field (not parallel x-hair at
intersection, so can recognize from
uniaxial even with this odd direction)
Useless if far from OA
Biaxial Optic Sign

B(-)
a = Bxa thus b closer to g
100 gray +
550 650
blue
add
subtract
add
Fig. 11-1A
100 gray 550 450

yellow
Biaxial Optic Sign

B(-) a = Bxa thus b closer to g (in stage)
add
Centered Bxa 2V = 35o
Centered Bxa 2V = 35o

With accessory plate
subtract
add
Biaxial Optic Sign

B(+) g = Bxa thus b closer to a (in stage)
sub
add
sub
Fig. 11-1A
Always use Optic Axis Figure &

curvature of isogyre to determine
optic sign
How find a crystal for this?
Blue in NW is (-) still works
Estimating 2V
OAP

Sign of Elongation
If g || elongation
will always add
length slow
g
U(+) will also

length slow
If a || elongation
will always subtract
length fast
U(-) will also

length fast
Sign of Elongation
If b || elongation
Sometimes will add length slow
Sometimes will subtract length fast
Platy minerals may

appear elongated too
Can still use sign of
elongation on edges
Optical Mineralogy in a Nutshell

Use of the petrographic microscope in
three easy lessons
Part III
JENIS PENGAMATAN
ORTOSKOPIS
Sinar-sinar yang datangnya sejajar

PPL (nikol sejajar)
Warna, pleokroisme, habit (bentuk), indek bias,
belahan, relief, ukuran
XPL (nikol bersilang)
Bias rangkap (BF), orientasi, pemadaman,
sumbu optik, tanda optik, kembaran
KONOSKOPIS
Sinar-sinar yang datangnya kerucut (lensa kondensor)
IDENTIFIKASI MINERAL
Mikroskop Polarisasi
OPAQ
TEMBUS CAHAYA
(Transparan)
ISOTROP
Tak terjadi perubahan warna
Tak ada bias rangkap (BF)
Contoh: Mineral bijih, gelas
ANISOTROP
Terjadi perubahan warna

Terdapat bias rangkap (BF)
Mengacu pada indek warna
Contoh: RFM
MINERAL PEMBENTUK BATUAN

Mineral Silikat (Seri Bowen, 1928)
MAFIK
Relief tinggi
Berwarna
FELSIK
BF kuat
Relief rendah
Tak berwarna/ transparan

BF lemah
Mineral Non-Silikat
Oksida (hematit, magnetit, rutil)

Sulfida (pirit, spalerit, galena, kalkopirit)
Phospat (apatit)
Sulfat (anhidrit, gipsum)
Karbonat (kalsit, aragonit, dolomit)
A few new properties, and then some review

Cleavage number and orientation of cleavage
planes
Twinning type of twinning, orientation
Extinction angle parallel or inclined? Angle?
Habit characteristic form of mineral
Cleavage
Most easily observed in PPL (upper polarizer out),
but visible in XN as well
No cleavages:
quartz, olivine
1 good cleavage: micas
2 good cleavages: pyroxenes, amphiboles
Cleavage
2 cleavages
intersecting
at ~90
pyroxene
2 cleavages
intersecting
at 60/120:
amphibole
120
60
Cleavage
random fractures,
no cleavage:
olivine
Twinning
Presence and style of twinning can be diagnostic
Twins are usually most obvious in XN (upper polarizer in)
Twinning - some examples

Clinopyroxene (augite)
Simple twin on {100}
Plagioclase
Simple (Carlsbad) twin on (010)
Polysynthetic albite twins on (010)
Pericline twin on (h01)
Extinction angle
Extinction behavior is a function of the relationship
between indicatrix orientation and crystallographic
orientation
c
Z
c=Z
ne
nw
b
Y
a=X
b=Y
a
X
parallel extinction
inclined extinction
Extinction angle parallel extinction

All uniaxial minerals show parallel extinction
Orthorhombic minerals show parallel extinction
(this is because xtl axes and indicatrix axes coincide)

orthopyroxene
PPL
XN
Extinction angle - inclined extinction

Monoclinic and triclinic minerals:
indicatrix axes do not coincide with crystallographic axes
These minerals have inclined extinction

(and extinction angle helps to identify them)
extinction
angle
clinopyroxene
Habit or form
acicular
anhedral/irregular
bladed
blocky
elongate
euhedral
fibrous
prismatic
rounded
tabular
Habit or form
acicular
anhedral/irregular
bladed
blocky
elongate
euhedral
fibrous
prismatic
rounded
tabular
Review techniques for identifying unknown minerals

Start in PPL:
Color/pleochroism
Relief
Cleavages
Habit
Then go to XN:
Birefringence
Twinning
Extinction angle
Uniaxial or biaxial?
2V if biaxial
Positive or negative?
Go to Nesse or similar book
Chemical formula
Symmetry
Uni or biaxial, (+) or (-)
RIs: lengths of indicatrix axes
Birefringence
2V if biaxial
Diagrams:
* Crystallographic axes
* Indicatrix axes
* Optic axes
* Cleavages
* Extinction angles
Another example
Crystallographic axes: a, b, c
Indicatrix axes: X, Y, Z or e, w
Optic axes
Cleavages
Extinction angles
Then read text re color, pleochroism, habit, cleavage, twinning,

distinguishing features, occurrence make sure properties match
your observations. If not, check another mineral
On to real rocks
good luck and have fun!

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Optical Mineralogy

Use of the petrographic

Why use the microscope??

Identify minerals (no guessing!)

Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003

The petrographic microscope

In order to use the scope, we need to understand a little about

What happens as light moves through the scope?

Frequency = # of waves/sec to pass

(in physics v = c, but no longer)

Electromagnetic spectrum & visible portion

for 2 known media (air/water) sin i/sin r = nr / ni = const

So can predict angle change (or use to

What happens as light moves through the scope?

Light beam = numerous

1) Light passes through the lower polarizer

Plane polarized light PPL

Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003

Only the component of light vibrating in E-W

2) Insert the upper polarizer

Now what happens?

Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003

The Optical Indicatrix

Indicatrix = surface connecting tips of vectors

Isotropic media have all ni the same (by definition)

The Isotropic Indicatrix

2) n (radial vectors of circular

Only effect is slower velocity (rep.

Review: With any isotropic substance (spherical

Note: the gray field should also be

Liquids, gases, amorphous solids

Mineral properties in PPL: relief

Quartz has low relief

Garnet has high relief

Mineral properties in PPL: relief

- Olivine has high relief

Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003

What causes relief?

nxtl > nepoxy

nxtl < nepoxy

Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003

Now insert a thin section of a rock in XPL

Light vibrating E-W

Light and colors

How does this work??

Conclusion has to be that minerals somehow

Obeys Snell's Law and goes

Vibrates ^ plane containing

Fig 6-7 Bloss, Optical

..also doesn't vibrate ^

IMPORTANT: A given ray of

Fig 6-7 Bloss, Optical

Some generalizations and vocabulary

Amorphous materials and isometric minerals (e.g., garnet)

Minerals with one special direction are called uniaxial

Minerals with two special directions are called biaxial

Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003

n > 1 for anisotropic substances

Fig 6-10 Bloss, Optical

Hexagonal and tetragonal crystals have one unique