1

Fundamentals of Casting
Casting, one of the oldest manufacturing processes, dates back to 4000 B.C.
when copper arrowheads were made.
Casting processes basically involve the introduction of a molten metal into a mold
cavity, where upon solidification, the metal takes on the shape of the mold cavity.
Simple and complicated shapes can be made from any metal that can
be melted.
Example of cast parts: frames, structural parts, machine components,
engine blocks, valves, pipes, statues, ornamental artifacts..
Sand Casting Production Sequence
Casting sizes range form few mm (teeth of a zipper) to
10 m (propellers of ocean liners)
Metal Casting Products
6
Casting Processes
Preparing a mold cavity of the desired shape with
proper allowance for shrinkage.
Melting the metal with acceptable quality and
temp.
Pouring the metal into the cavity and providing
means for the escape of air or gases.
Solidification process, must be properly designed
and controlled to avoid defects.
Casting removal.
Finishing, cleaning and inspection operations.

3D view of the sand mold
Pattern:
A Pattern is a model or the replica of the
object to be cast.
Except for the various allowances a pattern
exactly resembles the casting to be made.
Patterns may be in two or three pieces,
where as casting are in a single piece.
A pattern is required even if one object has
to be cast.
The quality of casting and the final product
will be effected to a great extent by the
planning of pattern.
Functions of Patterns:
A Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the
purpose of making a casting.
A Pattern may contain projections known as
core prints if the casting requires a core and
need to be made hollow.
Risers, runners and gates may form a part of
the pattern.
Patterns properly made and having finished
and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
Properly constructed patterns minimize
overall cost of the casting.

Selection of Pattern Materials:
The following factors assist in selecting
proper pattern material:
No. of castings to be produced.
Metal to be cast.
Dimensional accuracy & surface finish.
Shape, complexity and size of casting.
Casting design parameters.
Type of molding materials.
The chance of repeat orders.
Nature of molding process.
Position of core print.

The pattern material should be:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined.
2. Light in weight.
3. Strong, hard and durable.
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion .
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical
reactions.
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by
variations in temperature and humidity.
7. Available at low cost.

Materials for making patterns:
a. Wood
b. Metal
c. Plastic
d. Plaster
e. Wax.
1. Wooden Patterns:
These are used where the no. of castings to be produced is small
and pattern size is large.
Advantages:
Inexpensive
Easily available in large quantities
Easy to fabricate
Light in weight
They can be repaired easily
Easy to obtain good surface finish

Limitations:
Susceptible to shrinkage and swelling
Possess poor wear resistance
Abraded easily by sand action
Absorb moisture, consequently get wrapped
Cannot withstand rough handling
Life is very short

Commonly used woods for making patterns:
a. Teak
b. Pine
c. Mahogony
d. Deodar etc..



2. Metal Patterns:
These are employed where large no. of castings have to
be produced from same patterns.
Advantages:
Do not absorb moisture
More stronger
Possess much longer life
Do not wrap, retain their shape
Greater resistance to abrasion
Accurate and smooth surface finish
Good machinability
Limitations:
Expensive
Require a lot of machining for accuracy
Not easily repaired
Ferrous patterns get rusted
Heavy weight , thus difficult to handle

Commonly used metals for making patterns:
i. Cast iron
ii. Aluminium and its alloys
iii. Steel
iv. White metal
v. Brass etc..
3. Plastic Patterns:
Advantages:
Durable
Provides a smooth surface
Moisture resistant
Does not involve any appreciable change in size or shape
Light weight
Good strength
Wear and corrosion resistance
Easy to make
Abrasion resistance
Good resistance to chemical attack
Limitations:
Plastic patterns are Fragile
These are may not work well when subject to conditions of
severe shock as in machine molding (jolting).

4. Plaster of Paris Patterns:
Advantages:
It can be easily worked by using wood working
tools.
Intricate shapes can be cast without any
difficulty.
It has high compressive strength.

Plaster may be made out of Plaster of Paris
or Gypsum cement.
Plaster mixture is poured into a mould
made by a sweep pattern or a wooden master
pattern, in order to obtain a Plaster pattern.

5. Wax patterns:
Advantages:
Provide very good surface finish.
Impart high accuracy to castings.
After being molded, the wax pattern is not taken out of the
mould like other patterns;
rather the mould is inverted and heated; the molten wax
comes out and/or is evaporated.
Thus there is no chance of the mould cavity getting
damaged while removing the pattern.

Wax patterns find applications in
Investment casting process.

Types of patterns depend upon the following
factors:
i. The shape and size of casting
ii. No. of castings required
iii. Method of moulding employed
iv. Anticipated difficulty of moulding
operation
Types of Patterns:
1. Single piece pattern.
2. Split piece pattern.
3. Loose piece pattern.
4. Match plate pattern.
5. Sweep pattern.
6. Gated pattern.
7. Skeleton pattern
8. Follow board pattern.
9. Cope and Drag pattern.
1. Single piece (solid) pattern:
Made from one piece and does not contain loose
pieces or joints.
Inexpensive.
Used for large size simple castings.
Pattern is accommodated either in the cope or in
the drag.
Examples:
1. Bodies of regular shapes.
2. stuffling box of steam engine.

Fig: Single piece pattern
2. Split piece pattern:
Patterns of intricate shaped castings cannot be made in
one piece because of the inherent difficulties associated
with the molding operations (e.g. withdrawing pattern
from mould).
The upper and the lower parts of the split piece patterns
are accommodated in the cope and drag portions of the
mold respectively.
Parting line of the pattern forms the parting line of the
mould.
Dowel pins are used for keeping the alignment between
the two parts of the pattern.
Examples:
1. Hallow cylinder
2. Taps and water
stop cocks etc.,

3.Loose piece pattern:
Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once
they are embedded in the molding sand. Such
patterns are usually made with one or more
loose pieces for facilitating from the molding
box and are known as loose piece patterns.
Loose parts or pieces remain attached with
the main body of the pattern, with the help of
dowel pins.
The main body of the pattern is drawn first
from the molding box and thereafter as soon
as the loose parts are removed, the result is
the mold cavity.
4. Match plate pattern:
It consists of a match plate, on either side of
which each half of split patterns is fastened.
A no. of different sized and shaped patterns may
be mounted on one match plate.
The match plate with the help of locator holes
can be clamped with the drag.
After the cope and drag have been rammed with
the molding sand, the match plate pattern is
removed from in between the cope and drag.
Match plate patterns are normally used in
machine molding.
By using this we can eliminate mismatch of cope
and drag cavities.

Fig: Match plate pattern
5. Sweep pattern:
A sweep pattern is just a form made on a wooden
board which sweeps the shape of the casting into
the sand all around the circumference. The sweep
pattern rotates about the post.
Once the mold is ready, Sweep pattern and the post
can be removed.
Sweep pattern avoids the necessity of making a full,
large circular and costly three-dimensional pattern.
Making a sweep pattern saves a lot of time and
labour as compared to making a full pattern.
A sweep pattern is preferred for producing large
casting of circular sections and symmetrical shapes.
6. Gated pattern:
The sections connecting different patterns
serve as runner and gates.
This facilitates filling of the mould with molten
metal in a better manner and at the same time
eliminates the time and labour otherwise
consumed in cutting runners and gates.
A gated pattern can manufacture many casting
at one time and thus it is used in mass
production systems.
Gated patterns are employed for producing
small castings.
castings


Gating system
7. Skeleton pattern:
A skeleton pattern is the skeleton of a desired
shape which may be S-bend pipe or a chute or
something else. The skeleton frame is mounted
on a metal base
The skeleton is made from wooden strips, and is
thus a wooden work.
The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is
rammed.
A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired
shape to the sand and removes extra sand.
Skeleton patterns are employed for producing a
few large castings.
A skeleton pattern is very economical, because it
involves less material costs.
8. Follow board pattern:
A follow board is a wooden board and is used for
supporting a pattern which is very thin and
fragile and which may give way and collapse
under pressure when the sand above the
pattern is being rammed.
With the follow board support under the weak
pattern, the drag is rammed, and then the fallow
board is with drawn, The rammed drag is
inverted, cope is mounted on it and rammed.
During this operation pattern remains over the
inverted drag and get support from the rammed
sand of the drag under it.
Follow boards are also used for casting master
patterns for many applications.
9. Cope and Drag patterns:
A cope and drag pattern is another form of split
pattern.
Each half of the pattern is fixed to a separate
metal/wood plate.
Each half of the pattern(along the plate) is molded
separately in a separate molding box by an
independent molder or moulders.
The two moulds of each half of the pattern are finally
assembled and the mould is ready for pouring.
Cope and drag patterns are used for producing big
castings which as a whole cannot be conveniently
handled by one moulder alone.
Fig: Cope and drag pattern
Pattern Allowances:
A pattern is larger in size as compared to
the final casting, because it carries certain
allowances due to metallurgical and
mechanical reasons for example, shrinkage
allowance is the result of metallurgical
phenomenon where as machining, draft,
distortion, shake and other allowances are
provided on the patterns because of
mechanical reasons.
Types of Pattern Allowances:
The various pattern allowances are:
1. shrinkage or contraction allowance.
2. Machining or finish allowance.
3. Draft of tapper allowances.
4. Distortion or chamber allowance.
5. Shake or rapping allowance.
1.Shrinkage Allowance:
All most all cast metals shrink or contract
volumetrically on cooling.
The metal shrinkage is of two types:
1. Liquid Shrinkage:
it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal
changes from liquid state to solid state at the solidus
temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which
feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the
mold.
2. Solid Shrinkage:
it refers to the reduction in volume caused when
metal loses temperature in solid state. To account for
this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.

Almost all cast metals shrink or contract
volumetrically after solidification and therefore the
pattern to obtain a particular sized casting is made
oversize by an amount equal to that of shrinkage or
contraction.
Different metals shrink at different rates because
shrinkage is the property of the cast metal/alloy.
The metal shrinkage depends upon:
1. The cast metal or alloy.
2. Pouring temp. of the metal/alloy.
3. Casted dimensions(size).
4. Casting design aspects.
5. Molding conditions(i.e., mould materials
and molding methods employed)
The contraction of metals/alloys is always volumetric, but the
contraction allowances are always expressed in linear
measures.
2. Machining Allowance:
A Casting is given an allowance for machining, because:
i. Castings get oxidized in the mold and during
heat treatment; scales etc., thus formed
need to be removed.
ii. It is the intended to remove surface
roughness and other imperfections from
the castings.
iii. It is required to achieve exact casting
dimensions.
iv. Surface finish is required on the casting.

How much extra metal or how much machining allowance should
be provided, depends on the factors listed below:
i. Nature of metals.
ii. Size and shape of casting.
iii. The type of machining operations to be
employed for cleaning the casting.
iv. Casting conditions.
v. Molding process employed

Machining Allowances of
Various Metals:
3. Draft or Taper Allowance:
It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting
line.
Draft allowance is given so that the pattern can be
easily removed from the molding material tightly
packed around it with out damaging the mould
cavity.
The amount of taper depends upon:
i. Shape and size of pattern in the depth
direction in contact with the mould cavity.
ii. Moulding methods.
iii. Mould materials.
iv. Draft allowance is imparted on internal as well
as external surfaces; of course it is more on
internal surfaces.
The taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical
surfaces of the pattern so that it can be removed from
the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand
mold and without excessive rapping by the molder.
Figure 3 (a) shows a pattern having no draft allowance
being removed from the pattern. In this case, till the
pattern is completely lifted out, its sides will remain in
contact with the walls of the mold, thus tending to
break it.
Figure 3 (b) is an illustration of a pattern having
proper draft allowance. Here, the moment the
pattern lifting commences, all of its surfaces
are well away from the sand surface. Thus the
pattern can be removed without damaging the
mold cavity.
Fig: taper in design
4. Distortion or cambered allowance:
A casting will distort or wrap if :
i. It is of irregular shape,
ii. All it parts do not shrink uniformly i.e., some
parts shrinks while others are restricted from
during so,
iii. It is u or v-shape,
iv. The arms possess unequal thickness,
v. It has long, rangy arms as those of propeller strut
for the ship,
vi. It is a long flat casting,
vii. One portion of the casting cools at a faster rate as
compared to the other.

5. Shake allowance:
A patter is shaken or rapped by striking the same with
a wooden piece from side to side. This is done so that
the pattern a little is loosened in the mold cavity and
can be easily removed.
In turn, therefore, rapping enlarges the mould cavity
which results in a bigger sized casting.
Hence, a ve allowance is provided on the pattern i.e.,
the pattern dimensions are kept smaller in order to
compensate the enlargement of mould cavity due to
rapping.
The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced by
increasing the tapper.

Pattern Layout:
Steps involved:
Get the working drawing of the part for which the
pattern is to be made.
Make two views of the part drawing on a sheet, using a
shrink rule. A shrink rule is modified form of an
ordinary scale which has already taken care of
shrinkage allowance for a particular metal to be cast.
Add machining allowances as per the requirements.
Depending upon the method of molding, provide the
draft allowance.
Pattern Construction:
Study the pattern layout carefully and establish,
a. Location of parting surface.
b. No. of parts in which the pattern will be made.
Using the various hand tools and pattern making
machines fabricate the different parts of the pattern.
Inspect the pattern as regards the alignment of
different portions of the pattern and its dimensional
accuracy.
Fill wax in all the fillets in order to remove sharp
corners.
Give a shellac coatings(3 coats) to pattern.
impart suitable colors to the pattern for
identification purposes and for other informations.
Pattern Colors:
Patterns are imparted certain colors and shades in order to:
i. Identify quickly the main body of pattern
and different parts of the pattern.
ii. Indicate the type of the metal to be cast.
iii. Identify core prints, loose pieces, etc.,
iv. Visualise the surfaces to be machined, etc.
The patterns are normally painted with contrasting colors such that the
mould maker would be able to understand the functions clearly.
The color code used is,
1. Red or orange on surface not to be finished and
left as cast
2. Yellow on surfaces to be machined
3. Black on core prints for unmachined openings
4. Yellow stripes on black on core prints for
machinsed openings
5. Green on seats of and for loose pieces and loose
core prints
6. Diagonal black strips with clear varnish on to
strengthen the weak patterns or to shorten a
casting.
Moulding sand
Moulding sand is the basic raw material for
making molds
Sand is charaterised by the refractoriness
Main constituents of moulding sand are:

Silica 70 to 85%
Binder 10 to 20%
Water 3 to 6%
Additives 1 to 6%


Moulding sands are basically three types:
Natural sand : from natural resources (rivers)
Synthetic sand: mixed with clay and prepared
Special sand: high refractory sands


Types of Moulding sand:
According to the usage and condition the moulding
sands are classified as:

a) Green sand
b) Dry sand
c) Loam sand
d) Facing sand
e) Backing sand
f) System sand
g) Parting sand
h) Core sand
Moulding sand properties: Quality of castings depend
on the properties of sand. The important properties of
moulding sand are:

a) Permeability(porosity)
b) Plasticity
c) Flowability
d) Adhesiveness
e) Cohesiveness
f) Collapsibility
g) Refractoriness
h) Strength
Binders:
They give strength to the moulding sand.
The binders are classified as:
a) Clay binders : Earthy material become plastic when
mixed, used for both green and dry sand moulds
Ex: Bentonite, Kaolinite (fire clay)

b) Organic binders: Most used for core, give strength
after baking.
Ex: cereals, dextrin, linseed oil, resins and pitch etc.

c) Inorganic binders: Portland cement and Sodium
silicate are called as inorganic .
Used for large casting and CO
2
moulding

Additives:
They give special properties to the moulding sand.
The sand additives are classified as:
a) Coal dust : Finely pulverised Bituminous coal. Mixed
with facing sand to improve surface finish

b) Wood flour: Mixed with sand to improve surface finish
of mould and collapsibility of core

c) Silica flour: Mixed with facing sand, improves
refractoriness and strength and hardness

d) Iron oxide powder: Mixed with moulding sand to
increase the dry strength. Also improves
the collapsibility of core sand.

Foundry shop Pouring of Molten metal
Molding machine
PIN LIFT TYPE MACHINE
STRIPPER TYPE MACHINE
JOLTING & SQUEEZING MACHINE
Directional Solidification:
It refers to sequence of solidification of different
regions of the casting ideally starting from the thin
region to thickest region with constant metal feed into
the heavy sections of the casting













Directional Solidification can be achieved:
- proper gating
- correct position of riser
- using chills
- differential heating (using chills)
- controlled pouring rate
- controlled temperature maintenance









Molten Metal Ladles
Two types of ladles used to pour Molten metal
Each extracts molten material from the bottom,
avoiding transfer of the impure material from
the top of the molten pool
Fluidity and Pouring Temperature
Metal should flow into all regions of the mold cavity and
then solidify
Fluidity is the ability of a metal to flow and fill a mold
Affects the minimum section thickness, maximum length of a
thin section, fineness of detail, ability to fill mold extremities
Dependent on the composition, freezing temperature, freezing
range, and surface tension
Most important controlling factor is pouring temperature
The Role of the Gating System
Gating system delivers the molten metal to
the mold cavity
Controls the speed of liquid metal flow and
the cooling that occurs during flow
Rapid rates of filling can produce erosion of
the mold cavity
Can result in the entrapment of mold material in
the final casting
Cross sectional areas of the channels regulate
flows
Gating Systems
Proper design minimizes turbulence
Turbulence promotes absorption of gases,
oxidation, and mold erosion
Choke- smallest cross-sectional area in the
gating system
Runner extensions and wells- used to catch
and trap the first metal to enter the mold and
prevent it from entering the mold cavity
Filters- used to trap foreign material
Gating System
Figure 11-9 Typical gating system for a horizontal parting plane mold, showing key components
involved in controlling the flow of metal into the mold cavity.
End of Unit I
For more Information on Metal
Casting/Foundry
Log on to:
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NR2m3z7JFLU&list=PLFC9A1F1B838
19AD4
Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a
thin shell of sand held together by
thermosetting resin binder







Shell Molding
Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto
the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the
surface to form a hard shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured
particles drop away;

Shell Molding
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for several
minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern;

Shell Molding










Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are
assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is
accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue removed.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of shell molding:
Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not
required
Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
Can be mechanized for mass production
Disadvantages:
More expensive metal pattern
Difficult to justify for small quantities