6TH SEMESTER, METALLURGICAL ENGG

Compiled by:

Mrs. SUSHREE SUBHASHREE DAS

LECTURER IN METALLURGY ENGG.

GOVT. POLYTECHNIC MAYURBHANJ

TIKARPADA

1
 CHAPTER 01: INTRODUCTION TO FOUNDRY AS A
MANUFACTURING PROCESS

➢ MANUFACTURING is the process of shaping, machining & joining the metal together to
produce different component.

CASTING is the process of producing metal or alloy component parts of desired shapes by
Pouring the molten metal into a prepared mold & then allowing the metal to cool &
Solidified.

STEPS INVOLVED IN MAKING CASTING:

1. Making a pattern out of wood/metal/plastic.
2. Making a mold cavity.
3. Metal to be casted is liquefied by properly heating it in a suitable furnace.
4. Liquid is poured into a prepared mould cavity
5. Allowed to solidify
6. Product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to shape

ADVANTAGES:
1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by
this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding
can be minimized.
2. Possible to cast practically any material, ferrous or non-ferrous.
3. The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a
result, for production of a small lot can be possible.
4. There are certain parts (like turbine blades) made from metals and alloys that can only be
processed this way.
5. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes
are limitations to this technique.
2. Many new casting processes have been developed which can take into consideration the
aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are die
casting process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed moldings process, and shell
molding process.
3. Metal casting is a labor intensive process

2
 CHAPTER 02: PATTERN & PATTERN MAKING:
PATTERN:
• It is the replica of the final object to be made, used to prepare the cavity into which
molten material will be poured during the casting process.
• Patterns used in sand casting may be made of wood, metal, plastics or other
materials.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PATTERN & CASTING

• The main difference between a pattern & the casting is their dimension.
• A pattern is slightly larger in size as compared to the casting because a pattern
o carries shrinkage allowances(1-2mm/100mm)
o Carries machining allowances.
o Carries a draft allowances.
o Carries a core print.
• A pattern may not have all holes & slots which a casting will have.
• A pattern may be in 2 or 3 pieces where as a casting is in 1 piece.

SELECTION OF PATTERN MATERIAL:

The following factors assist in selecting proper pattern material
Number of casting to be produced
Metal to be cast
Desired dimensional accuracy & surface finished.
Shape, complexity &size of casting.
Casting design parameters.
Type of molding materials.
The chances of repeat orders.
Nature of molding process.
Position of core print.

PATTERN MATERIALS:
The common materials of which the patterns are made are the following:

1) WOOD:
It is the most common material used for pattern making because of the following

3
ADVANTAGES:
• It is cheap and available in abundance.
• It can be easily shaped into different forms and intricate designs.
• Its manipulation is easy because of lightness in weight.
• Good surface finish can be easily obtained by only planning and sanding.
• It can be preserved for a fairly long time by applying proper preservatives like shellac varnish.

DISADVANTAGES:
• It wears out quickly due to its low resistance to sand abrasion. As such, a wooden
pattern cannot stand a long constant use.
• It is very susceptible to moisture, which may lead to its warping or splitting. This
needs its careful storing in a dry place and the application of preservatives. Its life,
owing to the above reasons, is short as compared to other pattern materials.
• This confines its use to such cases only when a small number of castings are
required.

2) METALS:
• Metals are used with advantage, as pattern material, only when the number of
a casting to be made is very high and a closer dimensional accuracy is desired. They
have a much longer life than wooden patterns and eliminate the inherent
disadvantages of wood to a great extent.

DISADVANTAGES:
• They are costlier than wood and, therefore, cannot be used with advantage, where a
smaller number of castings is to be made.
• For giving different shapes and fine surface finish they need machining. This again
adds to their cost.
• Most of them are very heavy and in case of large castings the weight of the pattern
always poses a problem in its manipulation.
• A large number of them have a tendency to get rusted.

3) PLASTER:
• Plaster of Paris or gypsum cement is advantageously used as a pattern material since
it can be easily casted into intricate shapes and can be easily worked also.
• Its expansion can be easily controlled and it carries very high compression strength.
• Its specific use is in making small patterns and core boxes involving
intricate shapes and closer dimensional control.
• A marked feature of this cement is that contrary to the action of metals, it expands
on being solidified. Thus, if a cement of proper coefficient of expansion is selected,
the effect of shrinkage of casting can be automatically neutralized.
4
4) PLASTICS:
• Plastics are gradually gaining favor as pattern materials due to their following
specific characteristics:
o Lightness in weight
o High strength.
o High resistance to wear.
o High resistance to corrosion due to moisture.
o Fine surface finish.
o Low solid shrinkage.
o Very reasonable cost.

• The plastics used as pattern materials are thermosetting resins. Phenolic resin plastic
and foam plastic suit best for this purpose.
• For making the pattern, first the moulds are made, usually from plaster of Paris. The
resin is then poured into these moulds and the two heated. At a specific
temperature, the resin solidifies to give the plastic pattern.

5) WAX:
• Wax patterns are exclusively used in investment casting. For this a die or metal
mould is made in two halves into which the heated wax is poured. The die is kept
cool by circulating water around it. As the wax sets on cooling, the die parts are
separated and the wax pattern taken out.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PATTERN:

The following factors affect the choice of a pattern.
Number of Castings to be produced.
Size and complexity of the shape and size of casting
Type of molding and castings method to be used.
Machining operation
Characteristics of castings

THE COMMON TYPES OF PATTERNS:

1. Solid or single piece pattern
2. Split pattern or two piece pattern
3. Multi-piece pattern
4. Cope and drag pattern
5. Match plate pattern
6. Gated pattern
5
7. Skeleton pattern
8. sweep pattern sand casting
9. Loose piece pattern
10. Segmental pattern
11. Follow board pattern
12. Shell Pattern

SOLID PATTERN:

(Solid pattern)

• The solid pattern types is a most and simple method for simple shape casting.
• It can make without any sub-part or joint in the mold part.
• In this type of pattern only produce simple shape and withdrawn for very easily from the mold.
• The solid pattern placed in the drag position. That is used for make a flat surface like
as gear blanks, square blocks and more.
• Solid pattern made depend on design patterns material, shape and more.

SPLIT PATTERN (OR) TWO PIECE PATTERN

(Split Pattern Diagram)

6
 • When contour of casting manufacture the sand casting pattern making withdraw
from the mold is difficult or when the part depth too high in the casting.
• The pattern is split into two half part. For one half is contained in the drag and
another one in cope. For intricate shape part manufactured using the two or more
pattern pieces.
• The dowel pins used to piece are aligning together. This pattern types is known as
split pattern.
• The split pattern is common method for intricate casting part to produce.
• The two halves of pattern to align properly by using dowel pin. It placed on the top half of
pattern.

MULTI PIECE PATTERN:

(Multi piece pattern Diagram)

• It is one type of pattern types, when complicated part molded together, to require a
sand casting pattern making in more than two parts in order to casting process with
easily withdrawal and mold.
• This pattern contain may be three, or more number of pattern based on the design.
• It is having three piece patterns. The top part is cope, bottom is drag and middle part
of molding box is called check.
• The three patterns will be connected by using dowel pins and molding box clamped
by using clamp.

COPE AND DRAG TYPE OF PATTERN:

7
 (Cope and Drag Pattern Types Diagram)

• This pattern types used to provide complicate product.

• The more complicated part to be made, the complete sand casting pattern making become too
heavy to be handled by a single operator.
• In this cope and drag type of pattern made in two parts, which separately molded in different
molding box.
• After molding process completed to form of complete mold cavity. When the one part is drag
and another one is cope. It is called cope and drag.
• It is different from the split pattern because of drag and cope pattern both are molded separately
in the assembled position. The cope and drag type of pattern as above diagram.

MATCH PLATE TYPE PATTERN:

(Match Plate Pattern Diagram)

• The match plate pattern type is having two parts, one for one side and another one for another
side of pattern. It is called match plate pattern.
• The sand casting pattern making in two pieces. It also having gates and runner attached with
pattern.

8
 • The molding process completed after that match plate removed together, the gating is obtained
for joining the cope and drag.
• Pattern is mainly used for casting of metal, usually aluminum are machined in this method with
light weight and machinability.
• It should be possible for mass production of small casting with high dimensional accuracy.
They are also used for machine molding.
• The cost will be high of molding but it is easily compensated by high rate of production and
more accuracy.

GATED PATTERN:

(Gated pattern Diagram)

• To make multiple parts with in single mold and single pattern for all the part cavity of
mold.
• The multi cavity mold is prepared a single sand mold carries a multiple number of
cavities. The gates are used to connect the pattern each other.
• The suitable gates or channels are provided for feeding the molten metal into cavity.
• All the cavity are feed by using single runner.
• It mainly consider for low molding time and uniformly feeding of molten metal. It used for mass
production of small casting.

SKELETON PATTERN:

9
 (Skeleton pattern Diagram)

• The casting size is very large but easy to shape and only possible for little number of
parts to be made, also not economical with low quantity of large solid pattern of size
• In this stage a pattern consists of wooden frame and strips is made. It is called skeleton pattern.
• The mold is filled properly. The surplus sand is removed together by means of stickler.

SWEEP PATTERN SAND CASTING METHOD:

• The plane is rotated about an axis with 360⁰ called symmetry or sweep. In this sweep
pattern sand castings prepare the sand mold by using this method. It is called sweep
pattern.
• It could be economical to save money and make with full pattern because of symmetry.

10
 In this pattern used for prepare the mold of large symmetrical casting by mean of circular cross
section.
• The sweep pattern sand casting consists of base is placed on the sand mass, vertical
spindle and wooden template is called sweep.
• The outer ends of the sweep having corresponding to the shape of require casting.
• The cavity formed together, from sweep is rotated about the axis.
• The sweep and spindle is removed from the cavity for leaving the base in the sand.
• The removal of spindle, in this cause to provide hole and it is patched up by filling the sand.
• Sweep pattern sand casting Method mainly for Circular solid Part make.

SEGMENTAL PATTERN:

• The segmental pattern is used to prepare the mold of larger circular casting to avoid the use of
solid pattern of exact size. It is similar to sweep pattern, but the difference from Sweep pattern,
the sweep pattern is give a continuous revolve motion to generate the part, the segmental pattern
itself and mold is prepared.
• In this segmental pattern construction should be save the material for pattern make and easy
carried.
• The segmental pattern is mounted on the central pivot and mold in one position for after prepare
of mold the segment is moved for next position. That is repeat together the complete mold is
done.

LOOSE PIECE PATTERN:

(Loose Piece Pattern)

11
 • A single piece are made to have loose piece in easy to allow withdrawal from the mold when the
molding process are completed, after the main pattern is withdrawn leaving from that piece in
the sand.
• After the withdrawal of piece from mold, its cavity separately formed by the pattern.
• Loose piece pattern is highly skilled job and expensive.

FOLLOW BOARD TYPE PATTERN:

(Follow Board Pattern)

• A follow board is a wooden board & is used for supporting a pattern which is very thin & fragile
& which may give way & collapse under the pressure when the sand above the pattern is being
rammed.
• It is used for casting master pattern for many applications.

SHELL PATTERN:

(Shell Pattern Diagram)

• Shell pattern is used to molding of hollow shape product with curved or straight.
• It means of pipe work done it process.
• Pattern usually made of metal.
• The pattern parted along with the center line and both halves are doweled.
12
PATTERN ALLOWANCES:
A pattern is always larger in size as compared to the final casting; because it carries certain
allowances due to metallurgical and mechanical reasons. Following are the different types
of pattern allowances:
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowances.
2. Machining or finish allowances.
3. Draft or taper allowances.
4. Distortion or camber allowances.
5. Shake or rapping allowances.

SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCES:
Almost all cast metal shrink volumetrically after solidification & therefore the pattern
to obtain a particular shaped casting is made oversized by an amount equal to that
of shrinkage.
Different metal shrink at different rates.
The metal shrinkage depends upon: the cast metal.
(i) Pouring temperature.
(ii) Casting dimension
(iii) Casting design.
(iv) Molding condition

Shrinkage of metal during casting will takes place in three stages

• Shrinkage of molten metal when reducing from pouring temp to freezing temp.
• Shrinkage of molten metal during freezing.
• Shrinkage solid metal when reducing from freezing temp to room temp
Liquid shrinkage is always specified by percentage over volume.
Highest liq. shrinkage = Aluminum (6.60 %)
Liquid shrinkage is compensated by providing riser during mould making.
Metal in the riser should solidify in the end.

Riser volume must be sufficient for compensating shrinkage in casting.

13
MACHINING ALLOWANCES:
It is a positive allowance given to compensate for the amount of material that is lost in machining or
finishing the casting.
Casting get oxidized in the mold & during heat treatment thus formed needs to be removed.
If this allowance is not given, the casting will become undersize after machining.
The amount of this allowance depends on the size of casting, methods of machining and the degree
of finish. In general, however, the value varies from 3mm. to 18 mm.
How much machining allowances should be provided depends upon the factor listed below.
• Nature of metal
• Size &shape of casting
• Type of machining operation
• Casting condition
• Molding process employed
• Number of cuts to be taken
• The degree of surface finish desired

DRAFT OR TAPPER ALLOWANCES:

Taper allowance is also a positive allowance and is given on all the vertical surfaces of pattern so
that its withdrawal becomes easier.
Inner details of the pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces.
The normal amount of taper on the external surfaces varies from 10 mm to 20mm/mt.
On interior holes and recesses which are smaller in size, the taper should be around 60 mm/mt.
These values are greatly affected by the size of the pattern and the molding method. In machine
molding its, value varies from 10 mm to 50 mm/mt.
Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the job.

The amount of tapper depends upon:

• Shape & size of the pattern

14
 • Molding method
• Mold material

DISTORTION ALLOWANCES OR CAMBER ALLOWANCES

Does not require on all the castings.
But it is mainly required in casting of `U' or 'V' shaped castings.
In case of V or U shape castings because of existence of differential shrinkages at different locations
of cavity, the legs will bend outwards producing inclined legs.

The shape of the pattern itself is given a distortion of equal amount in the opposite direction of the
likely distortion direction.
Done by trial-and-error basis to get the distortion amount.

SHAKE ALLOWANCES:
Moldings sand adheres to the pattern walls while molding.
Shake allowance is the wrapping done all around the vertical faces of the pattern.
It is provided to avoid the damages taking place due to adhering of molding sand to the pattern walls.
It is highly dependent on mould making person.
As it reduces the dimension of pattern so it is taken as negative allowance.
If the pattern is made by using the materials like wax, mercury, polystyrene as Pattern material, no
shake allowance to be provided.

15
 CHAPTER 03: MOULDING MATERIAL
A mold material should be such that the mold cavity retains its shape till the molten
metal has solidified.

SOURCES OF MOLDING SAND:

Following are the Sources of Moulding Sand
• River beds
• Sea
• Lakes
• Desert

TYPES OF MOULDING SAND:

There are basically 3types of molding sand i.e.
1. Natural sand
2. Synthetic sand
3. Loam sand

NATURAL SAND
➢ Natural sand can be used for making mold as soon as it is received from its sources.
➢ A natural sand contains binding materials (5-20% clay).
➢ A natural sand needs only water(5-8%)to mix before making of the mold
➢ Natural sand can maintain moisture content for a long time.
➢ Natural sand may contains considerable organic matter.
➢ Natural sand are employed for casting cast iron & non-ferrous metals.
➢ Natural sand when mixed with bentonite gets its properties improved & is called as semi
synthetic sand.

SYNTHETIC SAND:
A synthetic sand consists of
▪ Natural sand with or without bentonite
▪ Binder
▪ Moisture
Thus a synthetic sand is a formulated sand. It is used for casting steel & other ferrous & non-ferrous
alloy.

LOAM SAND:
▪ Loam sand contains much more clay as compared to ordinary molding sand.
▪ The clay content is of the order 50% or so.
16
 ▪ The ingredient of loam sand may be
✓ Fine sand
✓ Finely ground refractories
✓ Clay.
✓ Graphite
✓ Fibrous reinforcement
▪ A typical loam sand mixture contains silica sand20 volumes, clay 5 volumes, manure
1 volumes & moisture 20%.

INGREDIENTS OF MOULDING SAND:

The principal ingredients of moulding sands are:

• Silica sand grains,
• Clay (bond),
• Moisture, and
• Organic additives.

SILICA SAND GRAINS

✓ Silica sand grains impart refractoriness, chemical resistivity, and permeability to the
sand.
✓ They are specified according to their average size and shape.
✓ The finer grains would lead to more intimate contact and lower the permeability.
✓ However, fine grains tend to fortify the mould and lessen its tendency to get distorted. The
shapes of the grain may vary from round to angular.
✓ The grains are classified according to their shape as below :
• Rounded Grain
• Subangular Grain
• Angular Grains
• Compounded Grains

CLAY:
➢ Clay is defined as those particles of sand ( under 20 microns in diameter ) that fails
to settle at a rate of 25mm per minute, when suspended in water
➢ Clay consists of two ingredients
• FINE SILT
• TRUE CLAY.
➢ Fine silt is the sort of foreign matter or mineral deposit and has no bonding power. It
is the true clay which imparts the necessary bonding strength to the mould sand, so that the
mould does not lose its shape after rimming. Most moulding sands for different grades of work contain
5% to 20% clay.

17
MOISTURE:
➢ Moisture in requisite amount, furnished the bonding action of clay.
➢ When water is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm which coats the
surface of flake-shaped clay particles.
➢ The bonding quality of clay depends of the maximum thickness of water film it can maintain.
The bonding action is considered best if the water added is the exact quantity required to form
the film.
➢ The water should be between 2% to 8%.

ORGANIC ADDITIVES:
1. Miscellaneous materials that are found, in addition to silica and clay in moulding sand are oxide of
iron, limestone, magnesia, soda, and potash.
2. The impurities should be below 2%.

PROPERTIES OF MOLDING SAND:

The basic properties required in molding sand and core sand are
(i) Adhesiveness
(ii) Cohesiveness
(iii) Collapsibility
(iv) Flow ability,
(v) Dry strength
(vi) Green strength,
Vii) Permeability,
viii) Refractoriness

ADHESIVENESS:
➢ Adhesiveness is a property of molding sand to get the stick or adhere to foreign
material such sticking of molding sand with the inner wall of molding box.

COHESIVENESS:
➢ Cohesiveness is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles
interact and attract each other within the molding sand. Thus, the binding capability of the molding sand
gets enhanced to increase the green, dry and hot strength property of molding and core sand.

COLLAPSIBILITY:

18
 ➢ After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand mould must be collapsible so that
free contraction of the metal occurs and this would naturally avoid the tearing or cracking of the
contracting metal.
➢ In absence of collapsibility property the contraction of the metal is hindered by the mold and
thus results in tears and cracks in the casting. This property is highly required in cores.

DRY STRENGTH:
➢ As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the moisture in the sand layer adjacent to
the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand layer must have sufficient strength to its shape in
order to avoid erosion of mould wall during the flow of molten metal.
➢ The dry strength also prevents the enlargement of mould cavity cause by the metallostatic
pressure of the liquid metal.

FLOWABILITY OR PLASTICITY:
➢ Flowability or plasticity is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid. It
will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure
evenly all around in all directions.
➢ Generally sand particles resist moving around corners or projections. In general, flow ability
increases with decrease in green strength and vice versa.
➢ Flowability increases with decrease in grain size of sand. The flowability also varies with
moisture and clay content in sand.

GREEN STRENGTH:
➢ The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have sufficient strength and toughness
to permit the making and handling of the mould.
➢ For this, the sand grains must be adhesive, i.e. they must be capable of attaching themselves to
another body and. therefore, and sand grains having high adhesiveness will cling to the sides of
the molding box.
➢ Also, the sand grains must have the property known as cohesiveness i.e. ability of the sand
grains to stick to one another. By virtue of this property, the pattern can be taken out from the
mould without breaking the mould and also erosion of mould wall surfaces does not occur
during the flow of molten metal.
➢ The green strength also depends upon the grain shape and size, amount and type of clay and the
moisture content.

PERMEABILITY:
➢ Permeability is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the escape of any
air, gases or moisture present or generated in the mould when the molten metal is poured into it.
➢ All these gaseous generated during pouring and solidification process must escape otherwise the
casting becomes defective. Permeability is a function of grain size, grain shape, and moisture
and clay contents in the molding sand.
19
 ➢ The extent of ramming of the sand directly affects the permeability of the mould.
➢ Permeability of mold can be further increased by venting using vent rods.

REFRACTORINESS:
➢ Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand high temperatures without
breaking down or fusing thus facilitating to get sound casting.
➢ It is a highly important characteristic of molding sands.
➢ Refractoriness can only be increased to a limited extent. Molding sand with poor refractoriness
may burn on to the casting surface and no smooth casting surface can be obtained.
➢ The degree of refractoriness depends on the SiO2 i.e. quartz content, and the shape and grain
size of the particle.
➢ The higher the SiO2 content and the rougher the grain volumetric composition the higher is the
refractoriness of the molding sand and core sand. Refractoriness is measured by the sinter point
of the sand rather than its melting point.

FACING SAND:
❖ Facing sand forms the face of the mould. It is next to the surface of the pattern and it comes into
contact with molten metal when the mould is poured.
❖ Initial coating around the pattern and hence for mold surface is given by facing sand.
❖ Facing sand have high strength refractoriness.
❖ Facing sand is made of silica sand and clay, without the use of already used sand.
❖ Different forms of carbon are used in facing sand to prevent the metal burning into the sand.
❖ A facing sand mixture for green sand of cast iron may consist of 25% fresh and specially
prepared and 5% sea coal.
❖ They are sometimes mixed with 6-15 times as much fine molding sand to make facings. The
layer of facing sand in a mold usually ranges between 20-30 mm. From 10 to 15% of the whole
amount of molding sand is the facing sand.

BACKING OR FLOOR SAND:

❖ The backing sand is old and repeatedly used sand of black colour. It is used to back up the
facing sand and to fill the whole volume of the box.
❖ This sand is accumulated on the floor after casting and hence also known as floor sand.

CORE SAND:
➢ Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand. Core sand is
highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which composed of linseed oil,
resin, light mineral oil and other bind materials.
➢ Pitch or flours and water may also be used in large cores for the sake of economy.
20
DRY SAND:
➢ Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and cores is
called dry sand.
➢ It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability. Dry sand is mainly used for larger
castings.
➢ Mold prepared in this sand are known as dry sand molds.

PARTING SAND:
➢ Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to stick to the
pattern and also to allow the sand to the parting surface the cope and drag to separate without
clinging.
➢ Parting sand is clean clay-free silica sand which serves the same purpose as parting dust.

SYSTEM SAND:
➢ In mechanized foundries where machine molding is employed.
➢ System sand is used to fill the whole molding flask. In mechanical sand preparation and
handling units, facing sand is not used.
➢ The used sand is cleaned and re-activated by the addition of water and special additives. This is
known as system sand.
➢ Since the whole mold is made of this system sand, the properties such as strength, permeability
and refractoriness of the molding sand must be higher than those of backing sand.

SAND PREPARATION:
❖ Sand preparation means mixing the molding sand ingredients such as sand, binder, moisture,
additives.
❖ The function of sand preparation is to develop optimum properties in molding sand
❖ And to add adequate amount of water to activate clay binder

SAND CONDITIONING:
❖ Sand conditioning consists of preparing the mold sand so that it becomes suitable for
molding purpose.

SAND RECLAMATION:
❖ Sand reclamation means the full recovery of the sand grade for use as a direct substitute for new
sand.
❖ It aims to removing all undesirable objects from the used sand & restores the sand to as nearly its
original condition as possible.

TESTING OF MOULDING SAND:

The following sand test method performed to molding.
21
 • Moisture content of sand test
• Clay content test
• Refractoriness sand test
• Strength test
• Permeability test
• Flowability test
• Mould hardness test

MOISTURE CONTENT OF SAND TEST:

• In this moisture content test method to determine amount of moisture by dry a mold sand weight
amount of 20 to 50 grams of mold sand and with constant temperature up to 100⁰c above one
hour.
• Then cooled with room temperature and reweight the mold sand.
• The moisture content will be evaporated in the sand molding.
• Due to loss of moisture, the weight of molding sand loose together, gives the some amount of
moisture expressed as percentage of original sand.
• The moisture content tester as shown in figure. It tester contain the pan with infrared bulb. In
this pan above placed weight sand and infrared heating bulb is switched on & determine the time
require, the mold sand is weighted together.

CLAY CONTENT TEST:

• The clay content test is determined an amount of clay in test process. In this test to take 20
micron clay particles per 0.0008 inch diameter, dried sample such as molding sand with 50 gm.,
which is put in distilled water with 1% of NaOH solution.
• In this mixture is stirred for five minutes to allow settle. Then the dirty water is removed
together, and process is repeated until to get the clear water.
• In this process washes away all clay in it, the mold sand is dry and weighted the Clay content.

GRAIN FINENESS SAND TEST:

22
 • The grain fineness test method is to find the size of the silica sand particles.

• Fine grain sand associate with good surface finish & strength of mold will high and lower
permeability.

• It carried out on dry silica sand weight of 50 gms and free from the clay. When the top sieves of
mechanical shaker, the sand is placed with 6, 12, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 140, 200 and 270 per
mounted on table. In this sieve having meshed together. Its sieve series placed with top to
bottom in order of fineness.
• The free silica is shaked together in this shaker within 15 minutes or above after that weight of
Sand retained for each sieve is obtains and also retained sand for each sieve multiplied by 2 and
give % of weight retained.
• AFS grain size number=(sum of products/total sum of the percentage of sand
retained on pan & each sieve)

REFRACTORINESS SAND TEST:

• In this test of mold sand is evaluated by heating the standard sand specimen with high
temperature based on sand type.
• In this specimen (heated specimen) are to allow cooled to room temperature and it examined
along with a microscope for surface characteristic or scratching with steel needle.
• The specimen of sand placed into furnace, then it temperature raise 100⁰c to 1300⁰c
• And wait 3 minutes and taken from oven for examination use of microscope for evaluate surface
characteristic.

23
 CHAPTER 04: BINDERS & ADDITIVES

❖ Binders can be either inorganic or organic substance.

❖ Binders included in the inorganic group are clay sodium silicate and port land cement etc. In
foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be Kaolinite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite,
Fuller’s earth and Bentonite.
❖ Binders included in the organic group are dextrin, molasses, cereal binders, linseed oil and resins
like phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde etc.
❖ Binders of organic group are mostly used for core making. Among all the above binders, the
bentonite variety of clay is the most commonly used. However, this clay alone can’t develop
bonds among sand grins without the presence of moisture content in molding sand and core
sand.

CLAY AS A BINDER:

❖ When clay is mixed with water it becomes malleable, plastic or liquid, allowing it to be shaped.
When drying, clay sets and recovers its cohesive properties, and so can bind the soil together.
❖ Most soils consist of clay together with proportions of silt, sand and gravel. The larger particles
give structure to a soil, while the clay holds it together and to a great extent provides the
cohesion.
❖ The three principal types of clay are:
• Kaolinite, which is relatively stable and has relatively low cohesion;
• Illite, which is of average stability and cohesion, and;
• Montmorillonite, which is highly sensitive to water and has high cohesion.

ADDITIVES:
❖ Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture to develop
some special property in the sand
❖ Molding and core sands are coal dust, corn flour, dextrin, sea coal, pitch, wood flour, silica
flour.

24
 CHAPTER 05: CORE & CORE MAKING
CORE:
➢ Core is a pre-prepared shape of the mould. It is used to provide internal cavities, recesses, or
projections in the casting. It is usually positioned into a mould after the removal of the pattern.
➢ A core is usually made of the best quality sand and is placed into desired position in the mould
cavity. Core prints are added to both sides of the pattern to create impressions that allow the
core to be supported and held at both ends.
➢ Core mix contains clay free silica sand. This is suitably mixed with binders, water and other
ingredients to produce a core mix.

CORE CHARACTERISTICS

Good dry sand cores should have the following characteristics:

• Good dry strength and hardness after baking
• Sufficient green strength to retain the shape before baking
• Refractoriness
• Surface smoothness
• Permeability
• Lowest possible amount of gas created during the pouring of casting

FUNCTION OF CORE:
• IT may provide external undercut feature.
• It may form a part of green sand mold.
• It may employed to improve the mold surface.
• It is used to strengthen the mold.

TYPES OF CORES:
➢ Cores may be classified according to:

A) THE STATE OR CONDITION OF CORE

a) Green sand core:
b) Dry sand core

B) THE NATURE OF CORE MATERIAL EMPLOYED

a) Oil bonded core
b) Resin bonded core
c) Shell core
25
d) Sodium silicate core

C) THE TYPE OF CORE HARDENING PROCESS EMPLOYED

a. C02 process
b. The hot box process
c. The cold set process
d. Fluid or castable sand process
e. Nish yam process
f. Furan no bakes system
g. Oil no bake process

D) THE SHAPE & POSITION OF THE CORE

a) Horizontal core
b) Vertical core
c) Hanging core
d) Balanced core
e) Drop core
f) Ram up core

GREEN SAND CORE:

❖ Green sand cores are formed by pattern itself
❖ A green sand core is a part of the mold
❖ It is made out of the same sand from which the rest of mold has been made i.e. the molding
sand.

DRY SAND CORE

• Dry sand cores, unlike green sand cores are not produced as a part of the sand.
• Dry sand cores are made separately and independent of that mold
• A dry sand core is made up of core sand which differs very much from the sand out
• A dry sand core is made in a core box and it is baked after ramming.
• A dry sand core is positioned in the mold on core seats formed by core print on the pattern.
• A dry sand core is inserted in the mold before closing the same

OIL BONDED CORE

Conventional sand cores are produced by mixing silica sand with a small percentage of linseed
sand.

RESIN BONDED CORE

Phenol resin bonded sand is rammed in a core box
The core is removed from the core box and baked in a core oven at 375 to 450 f to harden the core

26
SHELL CORE
Shell cores can be made manually or on machines

SODIUM SILICATE CORE

These cores use a core material consisting of clean, dry sand mixed with a solution of sodium
silicate.
The sand mixture is rammed into the core box.
The rammed core is gassed several second with co2.as a result silica gel is forms which bind the sand
grains into a strong solid form Core thus formed posses more strength

HORIZONTAL CORE
• The horizontal core is the most common type of core and is positioned horizontally at the
parting surface of the mould.
• The ends of the core rest in the seats provided by the core prints on the pattern.
• This type of core can withstand the turbulence effect of the molten metal poured.

VERTICAL CORE
• The vertical core is placed vertically with some of their portion lies in the sand.
• Usually, top and bottom of the core is kept tapered but taper on the top id greater them at
bottom.

HANGING CORE
• The hanging core is suspended vertically in the mould.
• This is achieved either by hanging wires or the core collar rests in the collar cavity created in
the upper part of the mould. This type of core does not have bottom support.

BALANCED CORE
• The balance core extends only one side of the mould. Only one core print is available on the
pattern for balance core.
• This is best suitable for the casting has only one side opening. This is used for producing blind
holes or recesses in the casting.

DROP CORE
Drop core is used when the core has to be placed either above or below the parting line.

CORE MAKING:
Core making involves the following steps
▪ Core & sand preparation
▪ Making the cores

27
 ▪ Baking the cores
▪ Finishing the cores
▪ Setting the cores

CORE BAKING:
After cores are made and placed on the core dryer, they are taken to ovens for baking
• Baking removes moisture and hardens core binders
• Generally core sand is a poor conductor of heat and hence heat penetrates slowly into the interior
sections of the cores
• In a core having thin and thick sections, the thin sections will be over baked, while thick sections will
be optimally baked
• Over baking of cores will result in destroying the binders and hence core will be just a heap of sand
• Large core will be baked differently on the surface and in interiors, especially if the oven is too hot
• Cores that are not baked fully will create an excess of gas and cause blows

EQUIPMENT USED FOR BAKING OF CORES:

IT is categorized as follows
1. Core oven
o Batch type
o Continuous types
2. Dielectric bakers
3. Radiant backers

CORE OVEN:
CONTINUOUS OVENS:
▪ Are those through which the core moves slowly on the conveyor.
▪ Continuous loading and unloading is followed and hence the baking time is controlled by the
rate of travel of the conveyor.
▪ Generally same sized cores are used in this.

BATCH TYPE OVENS:

▪ No movement of cores occur
▪ Electricity, gas, oil are used for heating and temperature is maintained uniformly and closely
controlled by suitable instruments.
▪ Temperature is of the order of 450oF and this depends upon the binder.
▪ Heating elements are properly spaced to have uniform/same temperature distribution throughout
the container.
▪ Replacing new air from outside is done through blowers so that moisture can be controlled.

28
DIELECTRIC BAKERS:

• Rapid baking is possible by dielectric heating.

• Induction heating: used for heating materials which are conductors of electricity, like metals, and is
done in continuously varying magnetic field.
• Dielectric heating is done for non-conductors of electricity. In this alternating electric field is
established between two parallel plates which act as an electric condenser. The material to be heated is
placed in between these parallel electrodes
• With a high frequency electric current (15 million times/sec) in ON condition, heat is generated into
the molecules.
• IN this case, the interior of the cores are heated rapidly as outer surfaces.
• Thermosetting synthetic resin binders, which cure app. at 250°F and which do not require oxidation
are well suited for dielectric heating.
• Small sized samples can be baked within 30 sec, while large sections need few minutes
• Less chance of over baking or under baking.

29
 CHAPTER 06: MOULD & MOULD MAKING

❖ Molds are negative forms that are used to shape casting materials, creating duplicates of the
model (object) the mold was made from. The resulting cast will be an exact likeness of the
shape of the hollow mold form.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOLD:
A mold must:
▪ Possess refractoriness to bear the high heat of the molten metal
▪ Possess strength to hold the weight of molten metal.
▪ Produces a minimum amount of mold gases

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MOLD:

Mold can be classified into following types

1. Green sand mold
2. Dry sand mold
3. Skin dried mold
4. Air dried mold
5. Core sand mold
6. Loam mold
7. Shell mold
8. Cement bonded sand mold
9. Metal mold
10. Investment mold
11. Ceramic mold
12. Plaster mold
13. Graphite mold
14. Sodium silicate mold

METHODES OF MOLDING:
Various methods of molding are as follows:

Bench Moulding:
▪ Bench moulding is carried out on a convenient bench and the moulds prepared are relatively
small.
▪ By bench moulding, green sand, dry sand or skin-dry sand moulds can be made.
▪ In this, hand ramming with loose patterns is employed and as such, it is a slow and laborious
method
30
Various methods of bench moulding are described below:

Two Box Moulding:

▪ It uses the moulding box made in two parts (upper is called cope and lower one drag).
▪ Two parts are fitted with a suitable clamping and locating device. Clamping prevents the cope
from lifting due to the pressure of the molten metal while pouring.
▪ Locating device enables the two parts to maintain proper alignment at all times.
▪ In this method, the drag and pattern are placed on the moulding board and the sand is rammed in
drag. The drag is then rolled over the board. The other part of the pattern is fitted over bottom
one, and cope is placed over the drag.
▪ Sprue-pin and riser pin are placed in position, and sand filled in the cope and rammed. Mould is
vented, sprue and riser pins removed. Mould is then parted off, pattern withdrawn, mould cavity
cleaned and gate cut in the drag.
▪ Core is placed in position and reassembled and clamped to make the mould ready for pouring.

Three-Box Moulding:
▪ When the pattern is of flanged type, two box moulding becomes inconvenient. To facilitate
moulding work in such cases, three boxes are used (middle box being called ‘cheek’). During
pouring of metal, all the three boxes are clamped properly.

31
Stacked Moulding:
▪ When a large number of small size castings are required, each having one flat surface,
this method can be used. Both sides of one half of the mould can be made use of by
stacking them
▪ There will be a common passage for the molten metal running through the stock of the
intermediate boxes. A number of parts can thus be cast in a single pouring operation

32
Floor Moulding:

▪ In this method, the moulding of medium and large moulds is directly carried out on the floor.
▪ Green sand, dry sand, or skin-dry moulds can be made by this method on the floor with the
proper flasks.
▪ It is also a slow and laborious method as it requires ramming with loose patterns.
▪ The floor moulding is generally carried out using two part boxes (top and bottom, known as
cope and drag). These boxes consist of two stout frames with pins and holes to ensure accurate
location. The ground surface is first levelled and half part of pattern placed over it and then box
frame is placed around the pattern.
▪ Box is packed with sand, and sand is rammed and levelled off. The packed box is then turned
over and second box placed on top, ensuring correct location by inserting dowel pins into the
holes in side lugs on the boxes.
▪ The other half of pattern is placed over earlier half and sand is filled and rammed in top box and
levelled off.
▪ Two boxes are then opened and pattern is removed. If any repair is required, same is carried out
and gates for pouring metal made. If cores have to be located to form holes, these are placed in
position.
▪ Boxes are again put back into position and usually clamped to prevent the upper box floating on
the liquid metal.

33
Plate Moulding:

▪ The patterns in case of floor moulding are usually constructed of wood and are split on an
appropriate horizontal parting-line.
▪ The two portions of the pattern have to be located together with dowels.
▪ However, in plate moulding, the pattern consists of a flat plate usually of metal instead of wood
for long life, with portions of the pattern permanently assembled in alignment on each side.
▪ For very large quantity production, and for very heavy castings, two plates may occasionally be
used— one to assist in the making of copes, the other for drags.
▪ The plate incorporates some locating arrangement for the moulding boxes, which could be pegs
in the plate, but more usually consists of holes for locating pegs.
▪ The use of a plate normally calls for moulding boxes which incorporate lugs having holes for
location.
▪ A typical double- sided plate used for hand or machine moulding, and shows how provision is
made for six castings from one pouring.
▪ The plate includes runners, gates, part of pourer and part of riser, thus reducing the time
considerably to finish the mould after the extraction of the pattern equipment.
▪ This method is usually used for large quantity production. The use of a particular plate is
restricted to a certain range of moulding boxes.

Pit-Moulding:

▪ In this method, the moulding is carried out in the pits and generally, very large moulds are
made, the pit serving the purpose of flask.
▪ Generally, green sand is used in pit moulding but cement bonded sand sections may also be
used.
▪ For large moulds, this is the only method of moulding and is quite slow and laborious.

Machine Moulding:

▪ A variety of machines are used in this method for carrying out the moulding of small, medium
and large moulds.
▪ This method is faster and gives uniform mouldings, but requires mounted patterns. By this
method also, green-sand, dry-sand and skin-dry moulds can be prepared.
▪ Molding machine produce casting of better quality at lower cost.

34
 CHAPTER 07: SPECIAL MOULDING PROCESS

DIFFERENT METHODS OF RAMMING:

❖ HAND RAMMING:
▪ IT is used by hand using a rammer.
▪ It is laborious &time consuming.
▪ It involves low initial cost.
▪
❖ SQUEEZING:
▪ A plate is placed on the top of the sand mold and applies the load by using hydraulic or
Mechanical press. So, that ramming or compressing of molding sand will be taking
place.
▪ With the Squeezing operation, higher strength and Hardness of the mold is obtained on
top and lower strength and hardness is obtained at the bottom.

❖ JOLTING:
▪ A sand-filled mold is raised to a certain amount of height so that it possesses potential
energy.
▪ When it is allowed to form freely on to the ground, the Potential energy is converted
into Impact energy and Impact loading which is acting on to the ground.
▪ Whereas the equal and opposite reaction impact load produced by the ground will be
acting on to the mold for ramming and compressing of the mold called as Jolting
Operation.
▪ Because the force applied by the ground may not be transmitted up to the top of the
mold, hence the bottom of the mold is attaining higher strength and hardness.
▪ But the top of the mold is possessing lower strength and hardness.

❖ SAND SLINGING:
▪ A sand slingers does fast running
▪ It rammed uniformly
▪ It has high initial cost

35
 CHAPTER 08: MELTING PRACTICES:
• Before pouring into the mould, the metal to be casted has to be in the molten or liquid state.
Furnace is used for carrying out not only the basic ore refining process but mainly utilized to
melt the metal also.
• A blast furnace performs basic melting (of iron ore) operation to get pig iron, cupola furnace is
used for getting cast iron and an electric arc furnace is used for re-melting steel.

FURNACES FOR MELTING DIFFERENT MATERIAL

1. Grey Cast Iron

(a) Cupola
(b) Air furnace (or Reverberatory Furnace)
(c) Rotary furnace
(d) Electric arc furnace

2. Steel
(a) Electric furnaces
(b) Open hearth furnace

3. Non-ferrous Metals
(a) Reverberatory furnaces (fuel fired) (Al, Cu)
(i) Stationary
(ii) Tilting
(b) Rotary furnaces
(i) Fuel fired
(ii) Electrically heated
(c) Induction furnaces (Cu, Al)
(i) Low frequency
(ii) High frequency.
(d) Electric Arc furnaces (Cu)
(e) Crucible furnaces (AI, Cu)
(i) Pit type
(ii) Tilting type
(f) Pot furnaces (fuel fired) (Mg and AI)
(i) Stationary
(ii) Tilting
36
 (iii) Non-tilting or bale-out type
(iv) Electric resistance type (Cu

CUPOLA FURNACE:
➢ A cupola is a vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with a tapping spout near its base.
➢ Cupolas are used only for melting cast irons, and although other furnaces are also used, the
largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in cupolas.
➢ It consists of a large shell of steel plate lined with refractory.
➢ The charge consisting of iron, coke, flux, and possible alloying elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up the height of the cupola.
➢ The iron is usually a mixture of pig iron and scrap (including risers, runners, and sprues left
over from previous castings). Coke is the fuel used to heat the furnace.
➢ Forced air is introduced through openings near the bottom of the shell for combustion of the
coke.
➢ The flux is a basic compound such as limestone that reacts with coke ash and other impurities
to form slag.
➢ The slag serves to cover the melt, protecting it from reaction with the environment inside the
cupola and reducing heat loss.
➢ As the mixture is heated and melting of the iron occurs, the furnace is periodically tapped to
provide liquid metal for the pour.

DESCRIPTION OF CUPOLA:

➢ The cupola consists of a vertical cylindrical steel sheet and lined inside with acid refractory
bricks. The lining is generally thicker in the lower portion of the cupola as the temperature are
higher than in upper portion
➢ There is a charging door through which coke, pig iron, steel scrap and flux is charged
➢ The blast is blown through the tuyeres
➢ These tuyeres are arranged in one or more row around the periphery of cupola
➢ Hot gases which ascends from the bottom (combustion zone) preheats the iron in the preheating
zone
➢ Cupolas are provided with a drop bottom door through which debris, consisting of coke, slag
etc. can be discharged at the end of the melt
➢ A slag hole is provided to remove the slag from the melt
➢ Through the tap hole molten metal is poured into the ladle
➢ At the top conical cap called the spark arrest is provided to prevent the spark emerging to
outside

37
 OPERATION OF CUPOLA:
➢ The cupola is charged with wood at the bottom. On the top of the wood a bed of coke is built.
➢ Alternating layers of metal and ferrous alloys, coke, and limestone are fed into the furnace from
the top.
➢ The purpose of adding flux is to eliminate the impurities and to protect the metal from
oxidation.

➢ Air blast is opened for the complete combustion of coke.

➢ When sufficient metal has been melted that slag hole is first opened to remove the slag. Tap
hole is then opened to collect the metal in the ladle.

38
 WORKING OF CUPOLA FURNACE:
➢ Initially the furnace prop is opened to drop the existing earlier charge residue.
➢ The furnace is then repaired using rich refractory lining. After setting the prop in position, the
fire is ignited using firewood and then small amount of coke is used to pick fire.
➢ The little oxygen is then supplied for combustion. Lime, coke, and metal in balanced
proportions are charged through the charging door upon the coke bed and at proper time on
starting the blower.
➢ Air is forced from wind box through tuyers into furnace. The forced air rise upward rough the
stack furnaces for combustion of coke. Besides being fuel, the coke supports the charge until
melting occurs.
➢ On increase of temperature, the lime stone melts and forms a flux which protects the metal
against from excessive oxidation. Lime also fuses and agglomerates the coke ash.
➢ The melting occurs and proceeds and molten metal is collected at the bottom.
➢ Molten metal may be tapped at intervals before each skimming, or the tap-hole may be left open
with metal flowing constantly.
➢ In most cupolas slag is drained from the slag hole at the back of furnace. When metal is melted
completely the bottom bar is pulled sharply under the plates and bottom is dropped. All
remaining slag, un-burned coke or molten metal drops from the furnace.
➢ When the melt charge has cooled on closing furnace, it is patched and made ready for the next
heat.

ADVANTAGES OF CUPOLA:
• Simple design & easier construction
• Low initial cost
• Simple to operate
• Economy in operation & maintenance
• Less floor space required

DISADVANTAGES OF CUPOLA:
• Close temperature control is not possible
• Carbon & sulphur pickup takes place during melting
• Precise control of composition is difficult

OPEN HEARTH FURNACE:

➢ In open hearth furnace, pig iron, steel scrap etc. are melted to obtain steel.
➢ This furnace is widely used in American foundries for steel production.
➢ The hearth is surrounded by roof and walls of refractory bricks .The charge is fed through a
charging door and is heated to 1650°C mainly by radiation of heat from the burning of gaseous
fuels above it.

39
➢ This heat is obtained by the burning of sufficiently pre-heated air and gas.
➢ Such pre-heated air of gas is obtained by passing them though arc shaped hot regenerators at a
lower level.
➢ This contains fire bricks which are arranged to extract heat from exhaust gases. In the furnace
air and fuel are passed through a honeycomb of hot firebrick, called checkers.
➢ It preheats the air and fuel so that they are ready for combustion when they enter the hearth.
The products of combustion at the same time pass through the checkers at the other end of the
furnace.

➢ The hot gases heat the checkers. The process then reverses itself, and the newly heated
checkers now are used to heat the air and the fuel. It is said as a regenerative process.
➢ The products of combustion after giving up their heat to the checkers pass up through the stack.
On firing of coke, the charge is heated. Part of the heat necessary, results from radiation from
the low hot roof of the chamber.
➢ The furnace is raised bricked in with the charging platform, at the rear, also raised so that the
charge may be put into the furnace.
➢ The melt is tapped off the front into large ladles. The chemical composition of the end product
depends upon the lining, the charge, and the control impurities added during the melt after the
melt has been tapped off into the ladle.
➢ The lining plays a major role in the control of impurities. For magnetite lined furnace, the
charge consists of pig iron, limestone, and scrap iron. The limestone forms a slag.
➢ This slag and the oxygen in the air combine to remove impurities. The slag reacts with the
sulphur and the phosphorus in the metal, while the bubbling air causes oxidation of the carbon
and silicon. If too much carbon is present in the melt, iron ore is added.
➢ The oxygen from the iron oxide burns out the excess carbon. If the carbon content is too low,
pig iron is added. This replenishes the carbon. Other alloying elements like Cr, Ni. Co, W, Mo,
V etc. are added as needed.
➢ Ferromanganese may be added to the crucible after tapping. For acid lining furnace, the charge
should be scrap iron and low-phosphorus pig iron.
➢ Limestone is required to keep the slag fluid. As described above, the basic lining burns
phosphorus, silicon, and carbon. The slag is tapped off by the molten metal’s being allowed to
overflow the sides of the crucible into a slag pot.
➢ Oxygen is one of the most important elements used in the reduction of the molten metal. Rust,
scale, slag, and limestone are some of the sources of oxygen.
➢ Oxygen is introduced into the furnace with oxygen lances through the roof of the furnace.
➢ Twice the oxygen input wills double the carbon reduction. This increases the steel production of
the furnace.

40
ELECTRIC FURNACE:

• Electric arc furnace are employed for the production of high quality casting
• It is used for melting steel
• It has high cost of operation than other but it has to be borne when casting of finest quality is
required
• Its furnace atmosphere can be more closely controlled

TYPES:

1. Direct arc furnace

2. Indirect arc furnace

3. Resistance heating

4. Coreless type (or high frequency) induction furnace

5. Core type (low frequency) induction furnace.

41
DIRECT ARC FURNACE:

➢ In a direct arc furnace charge acts as one of the electrodes and the charge is heated by producing
arc between the electrodes and the charge.
➢ Since in a direct arc furnace, the arc is in direct contact with the charge and heat is also
produced by flow of current through the charge itself, the charge can be, therefore, heated to
highest temperature.
➢ In case of a single phase arc furnace two electrodes are taken vertically downward through the
roof of the furnace to the surface of the charge and in a 3- phase furnace three electrodes put at
the corners of an equilateral triangle, project on the charge through the roof and three arcs are
formed.
➢ The current passing through the charge develops electromagnetic field and necessary stirring
action is automatically obtained by it. Thus uniform heating is obtained.

➢ It is commonly used for production of steel.

➢ The usually size of such a furnace is between 5 and 10 tonnes, though 50 and 100 tonne arc
furnaces have also been developed.

Indirect Arc Furnace:

➢ An indirect arc furnace consists of a barrel type shell made up of steel plate having refractory
lining inside.
➢ There are 3 opening for the two graphite electrode & the third is the charging door for feeding
the metal charge in to the furnace
➢ Built up with the charging door is pouring spout
➢ Furnace is mounted on the roller which is driven by a rocking drive unit to rock the furnace
back & forth during melting.
➢ All the pig iron is charged in the furnace & above it scrap is placed.

42
➢ With electric power on the graphite rod are brought nearer till electric arc set up between them
➢ The heat is generated & the arc is responsible for melting the charge
➢ As soon as some metal is melted the furnace is set to rock to & fro for better heat exchange
➢ When melting is complete the furnace is tilted to permit liquid metal to flow out of the pour

CORELESS TYPE INDUCTION ARC FURNACE:

➢ A high frequency induction furnace consist of a refractory crucible placed centrally inside water
cooled copper coil & packed in to position by ramming dry refractory tightly between the
crucible & the copper coil which is recovered with wet refractory dried into hard mass
➢ Steel scrap is placed in the furnace as metal charge
➢ A high frequency current is passed through the water cooled copper coil
➢ Heavy alternating current thus induced in the metal charge by electromagnetic induction which
create heat
➢ The heat developed in the skin of metal charge reaches inside by conduction & melt the charge
➢ The secondary current associate with it a magnetic field which provide magnetic stirring action
on the molten metal speed up the melting process
➢ Once melted the metal deoxidized & poured into the ladle either tilting or lifting the furnace

43
 CORE TYPE INDUCTION FURNACE:
➢ A core type induction furnace operates as an ordinary transformer
➢ The primary coil has many turn &nit wound on a laminated steel core whereas secondary of the
transformer has one turn which is a channel of liquid metal within the furnace
➢ The furnace uses as alternating current 60cycle per sec
➢ Secondary current induced in the metal bath around the core & the heat is generated due to
electrical resistance of the metal to the flow of secondary current
➢ Channel of molten metal around the coil connect to the main metal container above which hold
the charge
➢ The metal in channel gets heated ,circulated through & stir the metal in the container &thus
melting process proceeds
➢ Once melted it can be ladled out.

44
 CHAPTER 09: METHODES OF PORING & FEEDING

➢ Gating system refers to all passageways through which the molten metal passes to enter the mold
cavity.
➢ The main elements needed for the gating system are as follows:
1. Pouring cup &basin
2. Sprue
3. Runner
4. Gates
5. Risers

Pouring cup:
• It is circular or rectangular in shape.
• It collects the molten metal, which is poured, from the ladle.
• The main function of a pouring cup is to reduce the momentum of the liquid flowing in to the
mould by settling first into it.
• In order that the metal enters into the sprue without any turbulence it is necessary that the
pouring basin be deep, also the entrance into the sprue is a smooth radius of at least 25mm.
• The recommended pouring cup depth 2.5 times the sprue entrance diameter is enough for
smooth metal flow and to prevent vortex formation.

45
Sprue:
• It is circular in cross section.
• It leads the molten metal from the pouring cup to the sprue well.
• The sprue should be a vertical taper passage through the cope to gain the velocity of the
metal as it flows down reducing the air aspiration and connecting the pouring basin to
the runner.
• The taper can obtain by the continuity equation. At Vt = Ac Vc
Where c = choke section of the sprue t = top section of the sprue

Runner
• The runner takes the molten metal from sprue to the casting.
• This is the final stage where the molten metal moves from the runner to the mold cavity.

Gate
• This is also called as ingate.
• These are the openings through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity.
• The cross section of the ingate should be such that it can be easily broken off after
casting solidification.
• Depending on the application different types of gates are used in casting process.
They are shown below

(Top gate)

46
 (Bottom gate)

(Parting line gate)

(Step gate)

47
Riser
• Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold cavity to compensate for
shrinkage which takes place in the casting when it starts solidifying.
• Without a riser heavier parts of the casting will have shrinkage defects, either on the
surface or internally.
• Risers are known by different names as metal reservoir, feeders, or headers. The riser
must be designed to freeze after the main casting in order to satisfy its function
• The riser must remain molten until after the casting solidifies
• Risers serve dual function, they compensate for solidification shrinkage and heat source.
So that they freeze last and promote directional solidification.
• The multiple risers can be provided according to the requirement. The other important
aspect of riser design is the connection between the riser and casting. Since it is necessary
to separate the riser from casting and it is desirable that the connection area be as small as
possible.
• On the other hand, the connection area should be large enough so that the link does not
freeze before solidification of casting. Short-length connections are most desirable.

Types of Riser

In casting process there are mainly two types of raisers are used
1. Open riser (Top Riser)
2. Blind riser (Side Riser)

OPEN RISER (TOP RISER):

48
 • The top surface of the riser will be open to the atmosphere.
• The open riser is usually placed on the top of the casting.
• Gravity and atmospheric pressure causes the liquid metal in the riser to flow into the
solidifying casting

BLIND RISER (SIDE RISER):

• Blind Riser is completely enclosed in the mould and not exposed to the atmosphere. The
metals cool slower and stay longer promoting directional solidification.
• The liquid metal is fed to solidifying casting under the force of gravity alone.
• Blind risers are good design features and maintain heat longer than open risers do

DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION:

Directional solidification is the solidification of molten metal from the sprue to the
mould cavity and then to the riser to produce a casting which is free from voids and
internal cavities. As the molten metal cools in the mould and solidifies, it contracts in volume.
The contraction of the metal takes place in three stages:
o Liquid contraction;
o Solidification contraction; and
o Solid contraction.

Liquid contraction occurs when the molten metal cools from the temperature at which it is poured to
the temperature at which solidification commences.

Solidification contraction takes place during the time the metal changes from the liquid state to the
solid, e.g., when the metal loses its latent heat.

Solid contraction spans the period when the solidified metal cools from freezing temperature to room
temperature.

Since all the parts of the casting do not cool at the same rate, owing to varying sections and differing
rates of heat loss to adjoining mould walls, some parts tend to solidify more quickly than others. This
contraction phenomenon causes voids and cavities in certain regions of the casting. These voids must
be filled up with liquid metal from the portion of the casting that is still liquid and the solidification
should continue progressively from the thinnest part, which solidifies, first, towards the risers, which
should be the last to solidify. If the solidification takes place in this manner, the casting will be sound
with neither voids nor internal shrinkage. This process is known as directional solidification, and
ensuring its progress should be a constant endeavor for the production of sound castings. In actual
practice, however, it may not always be easy to fully achieve directional solidification owing to the

49
shape and design of the casting, the type of casting process used, and such other factors. In general,
directional solidification can be controlled by

• Proper design and positioning of the gating system and risers

• Inserting insulating sleeves for risers
• The use of padding to increase the thickness of certain sections of the casting
• Adding exothermic material in the risers or in the facing sand around certain portions
of the castings
• Employing chills in the Moulds
• Providing blind risers

EFFICIENCY OF A RISER:

There are several factor that increase the efficiency of a riser such as
1. Using insulating material
2. Using chills
3. Using exothermic material
4. Use of padding
5. Using chaplet
6. Using moulding material of different chill capacity
7. Using of topping up
8. Using electric arc feeding
9. Proper riser head design

USING INSULATING MATERIAL:

• Solidification in riser or thin section of mold may be delayed by simple insulation
• Insulation can be done by using
• Insulating powder
• Insulating sleeve
• Insulating pad

USING CHILLS
• When the casting consists of both thick and thin sections, the thinner sections tend to solidify
earlier than the thicker ones.
• This differential cooling rate produces uneven contraction of parts and gives rise to internal
strains in the metal
• It may even produce cracks if the cooling of thinner parts is too severe.

50
 • For rapid solidification of heavy sections and the achievement of directional solidification,
which ensures controlled freezing towards the riser, chills are commonly used. Chills, which
may be external or internal

USING EXOTHERMIC MATERIAL

• Exothermic materials serve to produce directional solidification by the generation of heat.
• The exothermic material may be added either to the surface of the molten metal in the riser just
after pouring or to the sand in the riser walls.
• Due to its contact with molten metal, chemical reaction takes place, producing substantial heat.
The metal in the riser thus gets superheated and remains molten for a longer time. It also forms
a refractory insulating top on the riser to conserve this heat.
• The exothermic material is a mixture of the oxide of the metal to be cast and aluminum metal
in powder form. Each cast metal requires exothermic material which contains its own oxides. A
binder-like gelatinous starch is generally used to prepare a self-made mix.
• The exothermic material also serves as an insert in the mould at the desired position to help in
controlling directional solidification.
• The material may be molded in the form of a core by mixing it with water and then baking it.
• The exothermic-core is then inserted at a given location. The core retains its shape after the
reaction and provides heat insulation to the metal.

PADDING:
• Padding involves modification in the fundamental design of the casting where by thin section
are thickened or a taper is introduced to achieve directional solidification
• It involves addition of extra metal to the originally designed section of the casting
• If padding is accepted as design modification it is excellent otherwise the padding provided can
be removed by power cutting, grinding or machining.

TOPPING UP:
Topping up is useful with very heavy casting having long solidification times
Topping up extends the feeding period
Topping up involves addition of superheated molten metal into the riser at suitable interval after the
mold filled

ELECTRIC ARC FEEDING:

The metal in an open riser can be kept molten by striking and maintaining an electric arc between a
graphite electrode and the riser metal
Riser metal thus remains in the liquid state and can be fed till the complete casting solidifies.

51
CHAPLETS
• Chaplets are metal distance pieces inserted in a mould either to prevent shifting of mould or
locate core surfaces.
• The distances pieces in form of chaplets are made of parent metal of which the casting is.
• These are placed in mould cavity suitably which positions core and to give extra support to
core and mould surfaces.
• Its main objective is to impart good alignment of mould and core surfaces and to achieve
directional solidification.
• When the molten metal is poured in the mould cavity, the chaplet melts and fuses itself along
with molten metal during solidification and thus forms a part of the cast material

PROPER RISER HEAD DESIGN

Riser Shape and Size

▪ The most efficient shape a riser can assume is that which will lose a minimum of heat and
thereby keep the metal in a molten state as long as possible.
▪ This condition can be met when the riser is spherical in shape so that its surface area is a
minimum.
▪ For the same volume, the next best shape is a cylinder, and then a square. As it is difficult in
practice, to mould a spherical riser, a cylinder is the best shape to employ for the general run of
castings.

Riser Location
▪ The location of the riser should be chosen keeping in view the metal to be cast, the design of
the casting, and the feasibility of directional solidification.
▪ The riser may be located either at the top of the casting or at the side. Top riser is extensively
used for light metals as it enables the benefit of metallostatic pressure in the riser.
▪ Frequently, the number of users has to be more than one so as to derive its most effective use.
In such cases, their spacing should be carefully arranged so as to minimize the shrinkage.
▪ The feeding range, which is the distance a riser can feed the metal in a casting, thus becomes
an important consideration in riser design.

CHVORINOVS RULE:

Chvorinov's rule is based on the assumption that freezing time is governed by its (V/A) ratio, where
V/A is the ratio of the volume of the casting to its surface area and is known as modulus.
The solidification time of a casting is a function of the volume of a casting and its surface area
(Chvorinov’s rule). Solidification time of a casting is given by the formula:
Where C is the constant that reflects

52
(a) The mold material,
(b) The metal properties (including latent heat)
(c) The temperature.
The parameter ‘n’ usually takes the value 2. Sometimes ‘n’ is taken values between 1.5 to 2.

53
 CHAPTER 10: CLEANING OF CASTING
SHAKE OUT:
❖ After the molten metal has been poured into the mold it is permitted to cool & solidified, when
the casting has solidified it is removed from the molding box. This operation is known as
shakeout.
It carried out by following ways
▪ Dumping the mold assembly upside down on the bench or ground
▪ Breaking the sand around the casting
▪ Mechanically shaking out

FETTLING:
❖ Fettling are those operation which helps giving the casting good appearance which
when shaken out of the sand mold. It includes
▪ Removal of the core from the casting
▪ Removal of adhering sand and oxide scale from the casting surface
▪ Removal of gate,riser,runner etc. from the casting
▪ Removal of fins and other unwanted projection from the castings.

CHIPPING BY HAMMER:
❖ They are particularly suited in case of grey iron castings and brittle materials.
❖ The gates and risers can easily be broken by hitting with the hammer and we when we strike
with this hammer.
❖ So, these elements of the gating systems can be broken very easily

FLOGGING:
❖ Flogging involves the complete elimination of all residual moulding and core sand from the
casting surface
❖ A small, compressed air power percussion tool is employed to clear the castings hollow part.

SAWING:
❖ They are used for cutting the ferrous like steel, malleable iron and for non-ferrous materials
except aluminum.
❖ Mostly the hand saws are used for small and medium castings, but power saws are used for the
heavy castings.

ABRASIVE WHEEL
❖ These machines can work with all metals, but are specially designed for hard materials which
cannot saw or sheared and it is more expensive than other methods.
54
FLAME CUTTING:
❖ This type of method is specially used for ferrous materials and large sized castings where the
risers and gates are very heavy.
❖ In this method, the gas cutting flames and arc cutting methods may be employed and it is not
for small castings.
❖ Sometimes there will be heavy castings will be there & the risers may be very big risers with
handsaw it may not be possible for to remove that risers at such cases we use the gas cutting
flames right.

GOUGING:
❖ Gouging is an essential part of welding fabrication.
❖ Used for rapid removal of unwanted metal, the material is locally heated and molten metal
ejected - usually by blowing it away.
❖ Normal oxyfuel gas or arc processes can be used to produce rapid melting and metal removal.

55
 CHAPTER 12: CASTING DEFECT:
MOLD SHIFT:

▪ Defect caused by displacement of the mold cope in sideward direction relative to the drag. This
results in a step in the cast product at the parting line.

Cause:

▪ Improper alignment of upper and lower part during mold preparation.

▪ Misalignment of flask (a flask is type of tool which is used to contain a mold in metal casting. it
may be square, round, rectangular or of any convenient shape.)

Remedies:

▪ Proper alignment of the pattern or die part, molding boxes.

▪ Correct mountings of pattern on pattern plates.
▪ Check the alignment of flask

SAND BLOW AND PINHOLES:

56
 ▪ Defect consisting of a balloon-shaped gas cavity or gas cavities caused by release of mold
gases during pouring.
▪ It is present just below the casting top surface.
▪ Low permeability, bad gas venting, and high moisture content of the sand mold are the
usual causes.

Remedies:

▪ The moisture content in the sand must be controlled and kept at desired level.
▪ High permeability sand should be used.
▪ Sand of appropriate grain size should be used.
▪ Sufficient ramming should be done.
▪ Adequate venting facility should be provided.

DROP:

▪ Drop defect occurs when there is cracking on the upper surface of the sand and sand
pieces fall into the molten metal.

Causes:

▪ Soft ramming and low strength of sand.

▪ Insufficient fluxing of molten metal. Fluxing means addition of a substance in molten
metal to remove impurities.

Remedies:

▪ Sand of high strength should be used with proper ramming (neither too hard nor soft).
▪ There should be proper fluxing of molten metal, so the impurities present in molten
metal is removed easily before pouring it into the mold.
▪ Sufficient reinforcement of the sand projections in the cope.

SCAB:

It is caused by portions of the mold surface flaking off during solidification and gets

57
embedded in the casting surface.

PENETRATION:

▪ Surface defect that occurs when the liquid penetrates into the sand mold as the fluidity of liquid
metal is high, after solidifying; the casting surface consists of a mixture of sandband metal.
▪ Harder ramming of sand mold minimizes this defect.

Remedies:
This defect can be eliminated by using high strength, small grain size, low permeability and soft
ramming of sand.

Hot Tears or Hot Cracks:

When the metal is hot it is weak and the residual stress (tensile) in the material cause the casting fails
as the molten metal cools down. The failure of casting in this case is looks like cracks and called as hot
tears or hot cracking.

Causes
▪ Improper mold design.

Remedies
▪ Proper mold design can easily eliminate these types of casting defects.
▪ Elimination of residual stress from the material of the casting.

SAND WASH:

58
 ▪ Surface dips that result from erosion of the sand mold during pouring.
▪ This contour is formed in the surface of the final cast part.

CORE SHIFT:
Displacement of core vertically. Core shift and mold shift are caused by buoyancy of the
molten metal.

MOLD CRACK:

‘Fin’ like defect in cast part that occurs when mold strength is very less, and a crack

develops, through which liquid metal can seep.

59
 MISRUNS:

Castings that solidify before completely filling the mold cavity.

Causes

Low fluidity of the molten metal.

Low temperature of the molten metal which decreases its fluidity.

Too thin section and improper gating system.

Remedies

Increasing the pouring temperature of the molten metal increases the fluidity.

Proper gating system

Too thin section is avoided.

COLD SHUTS:

This defect occurs when two portions of the metal flow together but no fusion occurs between them
due to premature freezing.

60
Causes

Poor gating system

Low melting temperature

Lack of fluidity

Remedies

Improved gating system.

Proper pouring temperature.

COLD SHOTS:

Forming of solid globules of metal that are entrapped in the casting. Proper pouring

procedures and gating system designs can prevent this defect.

SHRINKAGE CAVITY:

Cavity in the surface or an internal void in the casting, caused by solidification shrinkage that
restricts the amount of molten metal present in the last region to freeze.

61
 It is sometimes called as ‘pipe’. Proper riser design can solve this problem.

Causes

Uneven or uncontrolled solidification of molten metal.

Pouring temperature is too high.

Remedies

This defect can be removed by applying principle of directional solidification in mold design.

Wise use of chills (a chill is an object which is used to promote solidification in a specific portion of
a metal casting) and padding.

MICROPOROSITY:

Network of small voids distributed throughout the casting caused by localized solidification
shrinkage of the final molten metal.

HOT SPOT OR HARD SPOT:

Hot spot defects occur when an area on the casting cools more rapidly than the surrounding
materials.

Hot spot are areas on the casting which is harder than the surrounding area. It is also called as hard
spot.

Causes

The rapid cooling an area of the casting than the surrounding materials causes this defect.

Remedies

This defect can be avoided by using proper cooling practice.

62
 By changing the chemical composition of the metal.

DIRT:

the embedding of particles of dust and sand in the casting surface, results in dirt defect.

Causes:

Cursing of mold due to improper handling and Sand wash (A sloping surface of sand that spread out
by stream of molten metal).

Presence of slag particles in the molten metal.

Remedies:

Proper handling of the mold to avoid crushing.

Sufficient fluxing should be done to remove slag impurities from molten metal.

HONEYCOMBING OR SPONGINESS

It is an external defect in which there is a number of small cavities in close proximity present in the
metal casting.

Causes:

It is caused due to dirt and scurf held mechanically in the suspension of the molten metal.

Due to imperfect skimming in the ladle.

Remedies

Prevent the entry of dirt and scurf in the molten metal.

Prevent sand wash.

Remove slag materials from the molten metal by proper skimming in the ladle.

WARPAGE:

It is an accidental and unwanted deformation in the casting that happens during or after solidification.
Due to this defect, the dimension of the final product changes.

Causes:

Due to different rates of solidification of different sections. This induces stresses in adjoining walls
and result in warpage.

Large and flat sections or intersecting section such as ribs are more prone to these casting defects.

63
Remedies

It can be prevented by producing large areas with wavy, corrugated construction, or add sufficient
rib-like shape, to provide equal cooling rates in all areas.

Proper casting designs can reduce these defects more efficiently.

FINS

A thin projection of metal, not considered as a part of casting is called as fins or fin. It is usually
occurs at the parting of the mold or core section.

Causes:

Incorrect assembling of mold and cores.

Insufficient weight of the mold or improper clamping of the flask may produce the fins.

Remedies

Correct assembly of the mold and cores.

There should be sufficient weight on the top part of the mold so that the two parts

fit together tightly.

64