Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Ministry of Higher Education

AL-Majmaah University
College of science in AlZulfi
Department of Physics
Electronics 1

Prepared by
Dr. Abdu Idris Omer
20/8/ 2010

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

Objectives
Discuss basic operation of a diode
Discuss the basic structure of atoms
Discuss properties of insulators,
conductors, and semiconductors
Discuss covalent bonding
Describe the properties of both p and
n type materials
Discuss both forward and reverse biasing of
a p-n junction

Bohr model of an atom

As seen in this
model, electrons
circle the nucleus.
Atomic structure
of a material
determines its
ability to conduct
or insulate.

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

The ability of a material to conduct current is
based on its atomic structure.
The orbit paths of the electrons surrounding
the nucleus are called shells.

Each shell has a defined number of electrons it

will hold. This is a fact of nature and can be
determined by the formula, 2n2.
The outer shell is called the valence shell.

The less complete a shell is filled to capacity the

more conductive the material is.

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

The valence shell determines the ability of material to
conduct current.
A Copper atom has only 1
electron in its valence ring. This
makes it a good conductor. It
takes 2n2 electrons or in this case
32 electrons to fill the valence
shell.

A Silicon atom has 4 electrons in

its valence ring. This makes it a
semiconductor. It takes 2n2
electrons or in this case or 18
electrons to fill the valence shell.

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is a bonding of two or more atoms by the
interaction of their valence electrons.

Covalent Bonding
Certain atoms will combine in this way to form a crystal
structure. Silicon and Germanium atoms combine in this
way in their intrinsic or pure state.

N-type and P-type Semiconductors

The process of creating N- and P-type
materials is called doping.
Other atoms with 5 electrons such as
Antimony are added to Silicon to
increase the free electrons.

N-type

Other atoms with 3 electrons such as

Boron are added to Silicon to create a
deficiency of electrons or hole charges.

P-type

The Depletion Region

With the formation of the p

and n materials combination
of electrons and holes at the
junction takes place.

This creates the depletion

region and has a barrier
potential. This potential
cannot be measured with a
voltmeter but it will cause a
small voltage drop.

Forward and Reverse Bias

Forward Bias
Voltage source or bias connections are
+ to the p material and to the n
material.
Bias must be greater than .3 V for
Germanium or .7 V for Silicon diodes.
The depletion region narrows.

Reverse Bias
Voltage source or bias connections are
to the p material and + to the n material.
Bias must be less than the breakdown
voltage.
Current flow is negligible in most cases.
The depletion region widens.

The basic function of a diode is to restrict current flow

to one direction.

Forward bias

Reverse Bias

Current flows

No current flows

Forward Bias Measurements

With Small Voltage Applied

In this case with the

voltage applied is
less than the barrier
potential so the
diode for all practical
purposes is still in a
non-conducting
state. Current is very
small.

Forward Bias Measurements With Applied

Voltage Greater Than the Barrier Voltage.
With the applied voltage
exceeding the barrier
potential the now fully
forward-biased diode
conducts. Note that the
only practical loss is the
.7 Volts dropped across
the diode.

Ideal Diode Characteristic Curve

In this characteristic
curve we do not
consider the voltage
drop or the resistive
properties. Current
flow proportionally
increases with
voltage.

Practical Diode Characteristic Curve

In most cases we
consider only the
forward bias voltage
drop of a diode. Once
this voltage is overcome
the current increases
proportionally with
voltage.This drop is
particularly important to
consider in low voltage
applications.

Complex Characteristic Curve of a Diode

The voltage drop is

not the only loss of a
diode. In some cases
we must take into
account other factors
such as the resistive
effects as well as
reverse breakdown.

Troubleshooting Diodes
Testing a diode is quite simple, particularly if the multimeter
used has a diode check function. With the diode check function
a specific known voltage is applied from the meter across the
diode.
With the diode check
function a good diode will
show approximately .7 V or
.3 V when forward biased.
When checking in reverse
bias the full applied testing
voltage will be seen on the
display. Note some meters
show an infinite (blinking)
display.

Troubleshooting Diodes

An ohmmeter can be used to check the

forward and reverse resistance of a diode if
the ohmmeter has enough voltage to force the
diode into conduction. Of course, in forwardbiased connection, low resistance will be seen
and in reverse-biased connection high
resistance will be seen.

Troubleshooting Diodes
Open Diode
In the case of an open diode no current flows in either
direction which is indicated by the full checking voltage
with the diode check function or high resistance using an
ohmmeter in both forward and reverse connections.

Shorted Diode
In the case of a shorted diode maximum current flows
indicated by a 0 V with the diode check function or low
resistance with an ohmmeter in both forward and reverse
connections.

Diode Packages

Diodes come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The

design and structure is determined by what type
of circuit they will be used in.

Summary
Diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits are
all made of semiconductor material.
P-materials are doped with trivalent impurities
N-materials are doped with pentavalent impurities.
P and N type materials are joined together to form a
PN junction.
A diode is nothing more than a PN junction.
At the junction a depletion region is formed. This
creates barrier that requires approximately .3 V for a
Germanium and .7 V for Silicon for conduction to take
place.

Summary
A diode conducts when forward-biased and does not
conduct when reverse biased.
When reversed-biased, a diode can only withstand
so much applied voltage. The voltage at which
avalanche current occurs is called reverse breakdown
voltage.
There are three ways of analyzing a diode. These
are ideal, practical, and complex. Typically we use a
practical diode model.

Chapter 2
Diode Applications

Objectives
Explain and analyze the operation of both half and
full wave rectifiers
Explain and analyze filters and regulators and
their characteristics

Explain and analyze the operation of diode limiting

and clamping circuits
Explain and analyze the operation of diode voltage
multipliers
Interpret and use a diode data sheet
Troubleshoot simple diode circuits

Introduction
The basic function of a DC power supply is to
convert an AC voltage to a smooth DC voltage.

Half Wave Rectifier

A half wave
rectifier(ideal)
allows conduction
for only 180 or
half of a complete
cycle.
The output
frequency is the
same as the
input.
The average VDC or
VAVG = Vp/

Half Wave Rectifier

Peak inverse
voltage is the
maximum
voltage across
the diode when
it is in reverse
bias.
The diode must
be capable of
withstanding this
amount of
voltage.

Transformer-Coupled Input
Transformers are often used for voltage change and isolation.
The turns ratio of the primary to secondary determines the
output versus the input.
The fact that there is no direct connection between the primary
and secondary windings prevents shock hazards in the
secondary circuit.

Full-Wave Rectifier
A full-wave rectifier allows current to flow during both
the positive and negative half cycles or the full 360.
Note that the output frequency is twice the input
frequency.
The average VDC or VAVG = 2Vp/.

Full-Wave Rectifier
Center-Tapped
This method of rectification employs two diodes connected
to a center-tapped transformer.
The peak output is only half of the transformers
peak secondary voltage.

Full-Wave Center Tapped

Note the current flow
direction during both
alternations. Being that
it is center tapped, the
peak output is about half
of the secondary
windings total voltage.
Each diode is subjected
to a PIV of the full
secondary winding
output minus one diode
voltage drop.

PIV=2Vp(out) +0.7V

The Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

The full-wave
bridge rectifier
takes advantage
of the full output
of the secondary
winding.

It employs four
diodes arranged
such that current
flows in the same
direction through
the load during
each half of the
cycle.

The Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

The PIV for a bridge rectifier is approximately half the PIV
for a center-tapped rectifier.

PIV=Vp(out) +0.7V

Note that in most cases we take the diode drop into account.

Power Supply Filters And Regulators

As we have seen, the output of a rectifier is a pulsating DC.
With filtration and regulation this pulsating voltage can be
smoothed out and kept to a steady value.

Power Supply Filters And Regulators

A capacitor-input
filter will charge
and discharge such
that it fills in the
gaps between
each peak. This
reduces variations
of voltage. The
remaining voltage
variation is called
ripple voltage.

Power Supply Filters And Regulators

The advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave is quite
clear. The capacitor can more effectively reduce the ripple when
the time between peaks is shorter.

Power Supply Filters And Regulators

Being that the
capacitor appears as a
short during the initial
charging, the current
through the diodes can
momentarily be quite
high. To reduce risk of
damaging the diodes,
a surge current limiting
resistor is placed in
series with the filter
and load.

Power Supply Filters And Regulators

Regulation is the last step in eliminating the remaining ripple
and maintaining the output voltage to a specific value. Typically
this regulation is performed by an integrated circuit regulator.
There are many different types used based on the voltage and
current requirements.

Power Supply Filters And Regulators

How well the regulation is performed by a regulator is
measured by its regulation percentage. There are two
types of regulation, line and load. Line and load
regulation percentage is simply a ratio of change in
voltage (line) or current (load) stated as a percentage.

Line Regulation = (VOUT/VIN)100%

Load Regulation = (VNL VFL)/VFL)100%

Diode Limiters
Limiting circuits limit the positive or negative amount of an
input voltage to a specific value.

This positive limiter will limit the output to VBIAS + .7V

Diode Limiters
The desired amount of limitation can be attained by a power
supply or voltage divider. The amount clipped can be adjusted
with different levels of VBIAS.

This positive limiter will limit

the output to VBIAS + .7V

The voltage divider provides the

VBIAS . VBIAS =(R3/R2+R3)VSUPPLY

Diode Clampers

A diode clamper adds a DC level to an AC voltage. The capacitor

charges to the peak of the supply minus the diode drop. Once
charged, the capacitor acts like a battery in series with the input
voltage. The AC voltage will ride along with the DC voltage. The
polarity arrangement of the diode determines whether the DC
voltage is negative or positive.

Voltage Multipliers
Clamping action can be used to increase peak rectified voltage.
Once C1 and C2 charges to the peak voltage they act like two
batteries in series, effectively doubling the voltage output. The
current capacity for voltage multipliers is low.

Voltage Multipliers
The full-wave voltage doubler arrangement of diodes and
capacitors takes advantage of both positive and negative
peaks to charge the capacitors giving it more current
capacity. Voltage triplers and quadruplers utilize three and
four diode-capacitor arrangements respectively.

The Diode Data Sheet

The data sheet for diodes and other devices gives
detailed information about specific characteristics
such as the various maximum current and voltage
ratings, temperature range, and voltage versus
current curves. It is sometimes a very valuable
piece of information, even for a technician. There
are cases when you might have to select a
replacement diode when the type of diode needed
may no longer be available.

Troubleshooting
Our study of these devices and how they work
leads more effective troubleshooting. Efficient
troubleshooting requires us to take logical
steps in sequence. Knowing how a device,
circuit, or system works when operating
properly must be known before any attempts
are made to troubleshoot. The symptoms
shown by a defective device often point
directly to the point of failure. There are many
different methods for troubleshooting. We will
discuss a few.

Troubleshooting
Here are some helpful troubleshooting techniques:
Power Check: Sometimes the obvious eludes the
most proficient troubleshooters. Check for fuses
blown, power cords plugged in, and correct battery
placement.
Sensory Check: What you see or smell may lead
you directly to the failure or to a symptom of a
failure.
Component Replacement: Educated guesswork in
replacing components is sometimes effective.

Troubleshooting
Signal tracing is the most popular and most accurate. We
look at signals or voltages through a complete circuit or
system to identify the point of failure. This method requires
more thorough knowledge of the circuit and what things
should look like at the different points throughout.

Troubleshooting
This is just one example of troubleshooting that illustrates
the effect of an open diode in this half-wave rectifier circuit.
Imagine what the effect would be if the diode were shorted.

Troubleshooting
This gives us an
idea of what
would be seen in
the case of an
open diode in a
full-wave rectifier.
Note the ripple
frequency is now
half of what it was
normally. Imagine
the effects of a
shorted diode.

Summary
The basic function of a power supply to give us a smooth
ripple free DC voltage from an AC voltage.
Half-wave rectifiers only utilize half of the cycle to
produce a DC voltage.
Transformer Coupling allows voltage manipulation
through its windings ratio.
Full-Wave rectifiers efficiently make use of the
whole cycle. This makes it easier to filter.
The full-wave bridge rectifier allows use of the full
secondary winding output whereas the center-tapped
full wave uses only half.

Summary
Filtering and Regulating the output of a rectifier helps
keep the DC voltage smooth and accurate.
Limiters are used to set the output peak(s) to a given
value.

Clampers are used to add a DC voltage to an AC

voltage.
Voltage Multipliers allow a doubling, tripling, or
quadrupling of rectified DC voltage for low current
applications.

Summary
The Data Sheet gives us useful information and
characteristics of device for use in replacement or
designing circuits.
Troubleshooting requires use of common sense along with
proper troubleshooting techniques to effectively determine the
point of failure in a defective circuit or system.

Chapter 3
Special-Purpose
Diodes

Objectives
Describe the characteristics of a zener diode and
analyze its operation
Explain how a zener is used in voltage regulation and
limiting
Describe the varactor diode and its variable
capacitance characteristics
Discuss the operation and characteristics of LEDs
and photodiodes
Discuss the basic characteristics of the current
regulator diode, the pin diode, the step-recovery
diode, the tunnel diode, and the laser diode.

Introduction
The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a specific
voltage across its terminals within given limits of line or
load change. Typically it is used for providing a stable
reference voltage for use in power supplies and other
equipment.

This particular zener circuit will work to maintain 10 V across the load.

Zener Diodes
A zener diode is much
like a normal diode, the
exception being is that it is
placed in the circuit in
reverse bias and operates
in reverse breakdown.
This typical characteristic
curve illustrates the
operating range for a
zener. Note that its
forward characteristics are
just like a normal diode.

Zener Diodes
The zener diodes
breakdown characteristics
are determined by the
doping process. Low
voltage zeners less than
5V operate in the zener
breakdown range. Those
designed to operate more
than 5 V operate mostly
in avalanche breakdown
range. Zeners are
available with voltage
breakdowns of 1.8 V to This curve illustrates the minimum and
200 V.
maximum ranges of current operation that the
zener can effectively maintain its voltage.

Zener Diodes
As with most devices, zener diodes have given
characteristics such as temperature coefficients and
power ratings that have to be considered. The data sheet
provides this information.

Zener Diode Applications

Regulation
In this simple illustration of zener regulation circuit, the zener
diode will adjust its impedance based on varying input
voltages and loads (RL) to be able to maintain its designated
zener voltage. Zener current will increase or decrease directly
with voltage input changes. The zener current will increase or
decrease inversely with varying loads. Again, the zener has a
finite range of operation.

Zener Limiting

Zener diodes can used for limiting just as normal diodes.

Recall in previous chapter studies about limiters. The
difference to consider for a zener limiter is its zener
breakdown characteristics.

Troubleshooting
Although precise power supplies typically use IC type
regulators, zener diodes can be used alone as a voltage
regulator. As with all troubleshooting techniques we
must know what is normal.

A properly functioning zener will work to maintain the output voltage

within certain limits despite changes in load.

Troubleshooting

With an open zener diode, the full unregulated

voltage will be present at the output without a
load. In some cases with full or partial loading an
open zener could remain undetected.

Troubleshooting
With excessive zener impedance the voltage would be
higher than normal but less than the full unregulated
output.

Summary
The zener diode operates in reverse breakdown.

A zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage

across its terminals over a specified range of currents.
Line regulation is the maintenance of a specific
voltage with changing input voltages.
Load regulation is the maintenance of a specific
voltage for different loads.
There are other diode types used for specific RF
purposes such as varactor diodes (variable
capacitance), Schottky diodes (high speed switching),
and PIN diodes (microwave attenuation and
switching).

Summary
Light emitting diodes (LED) emit either infrared or
visible light when forward-biased.
Photodiodes exhibit an increase in reverse current
with light intensity.
The laser diode emits a monochromatic light

Chapter 4
Bipolar Junction
Transistors

Objectives
Describe the basic structure of the bipolar junction
transistor (BJT)
Explain and analyze basic transistor bias and
operation
Discuss the parameters and characteristics of a
transistor and how they apply to transistor circuits
Discuss how a transistor can be used as an
amplifier or a switch

Troubleshoot various failures typical of transistor

circuits

Introduction
A transistor is a device that can be used as either an
amplifier or a switch. Lets first consider its operation
in a simpler view as a current controlling device.

Basic Transistor Operation

Look at this one circuit as two separate circuits, the baseemitter(left side) circuit and the collector-emitter(right
side) circuit. Note that the emitter leg serves as a
conductor for both circuits.The amount of current flow in
the base-emitter circuit controls the amount of current
that flows in the collector circuit. Small changes in baseemitter current yields a large change in collector-current.

Transistor Structure
With diodes there is one p-n junction. With bipolar
junction transistors (BJT), there are three layers
and two p-n junctions. Transistors can be either pnp
or npn type.

Transistor Characteristics and

Parameters
As previously
discussed, baseemitter current
changes yield
large changes in
collector-emitter
current. The
factor of this
change is called
beta().

= IC/IB

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

There are three key dc voltages and three key dc currents to
be considered. Note that these measurements are important
for troubleshooting.

IB: dc base current

IE: dc emitter current
IC: dc collector current
VBE: dc voltage across
base-emitter junction

VCB: dc voltage across

collector-base junction

VCE: dc voltage from

collector to emitter

Transistors Characteristics and

Parameters

For proper operation, the base-emitter junction is forwardbiased by VBB and conducts just like a diode.
The collector-base junction is reverse biased by VCC and
blocks current flow through its junction just like a diode.

Remember that
current flow through
the base-emitter
junction will help
establish the path
for current flow
from the collector to
emitter.

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

Analysis of this transistor circuit to predict the dc voltages and
currents requires use of Ohms law, Kirchhoffs voltage law and
the beta for the transistor.

Application of these laws begins with the base circuit to determine

the amount of base current. Using Kirchhoffs voltage law,
subtract the .7 VBE and the remaining voltage is dropped across
RB. Determining the current for the base with this information is a
matter of applying of Ohms law. VRB/RB = IB
The collector
current is
determined by
multiplying the
base current
by beta.
.7 VBE will be used in most analysis examples.

Transistor Characteristics and

What we ultimatelyParameters
determine by use of
Kirchhoffs voltage law
for series circuits is that
in the base circuit VBB is
distributed across the
base-emitter junction
and RB in the base
circuit. In the collector
circuit we determine
that VCC is distributed
proportionally across RC
and the transistor(VCE).

Transistor Characteristics and

Parameters
Collector characteristic
curves give a graphical
illustration of the
relationship of collector
current and VCE with
specified amounts of base
current. With greater
increases of VCC , VCE
continues to increase until
it reaches breakdown, but
the current remains about
the same in the linear
region from .7V to the
breakdown voltage.

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

With no IB the transistor is in the cutoff region and just
as the name implies there is practically no current flow
in the collector part of the circuit. With the transistor in
a cutoff state the the full VCC can be measured across
the collector and emitter(VCE)

Transistor Characteristics and

Parameters
Current flow in the collector part of the
circuit is, as stated previously, determined by
IB multiplied by . However, there is a limit
to how much current can flow in the
collector circuit regardless of additional
increases in IB.

Transistor Characteristics and

Parameters

Once this maximum is reached, the transistor is said to

be in saturation. Note that saturation can be
determined by application of Ohms law. IC(sat)=VCC/RC
The measured voltage across the now shorted collector
and emitter is 0V.

Transistor Characteristics and

Parameters

The dc load line graphically illustrates IC(sat) and cutoff for a

transistor.

Transistor Characteristics and

Parameters
The beta for a transistor is not always constant.
Temperature and collector current both affect beta,
not to mention the normal inconsistencies during the
manufacture of the transistor.
There are also maximum power ratings to consider.
The data sheet provides information on these
characteristics.

Transistor Amplifier

Amplification of a relatively small ac voltage can be had by

placing the ac signal source in the base circuit.
Recall that small changes in the base current circuit causes large
changes in collector current circuit.
The small ac voltage causes the base current to increase and
decrease accordingly and with this small change in current the
collector current will mimic the input only with greater amplitude.

Transistor Switch
A transistor when used as a switch is simply being biased so
that it is in cutoff (switched off) or saturation (switched on).
Remember that the VCE in cutoff is VCC and 0 V in saturation.

Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting a live transistor circuit
requires us to be familiar with known good
voltages, but some general rules do apply.
Certainly a solid fundamental understanding
of Ohms law and Kirchhoffs voltage and
current laws is imperative. With live circuits it
is most practical to troubleshoot with voltage
measurements.

Troubleshooting
Opens in the external resistors or connections of the base or the
circuit collector circuit would cause current to cease in the collector
and the voltage measurements would indicate this.
Internal opens within the transistor
itself could also cause transistor
operation to cease.
Erroneous voltage measurements
that are typically low are a result of
point that is not solidly connected.
This called a floating point. This is
typically indicative of an open.
More in-depth discussion of typical
failures are discussed within the
textbook.

Troubleshooting
Testing a transistor can be viewed more simply if you view it
as testing two diode junctions. Forward bias having low
resistance and reverse bias having infinite resistance.

Troubleshooting

The diode test function of a multimeter is more reliable than

using an ohmmeter. Make sure to note whether it is an npn or
pnp and polarize the test leads accordingly.

Troubleshooting
In addition to the traditional DMMs there are also
transistor testers. Some of these have the ability
to test other parameters of the transistor, such as
leakage and gain. Curve tracers give us even more
detailed information about a transistors
characteristics.

Summary

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is constructed of

three regions: base, collector, and emitter.

The BJT has two pn junctions, the base-emitter

junction and the base-collector junction.
The two types of transistors are pnp and npn.
For the BJT to operate as an amplifier, the base-emitter
junction is forward-biased and the collector-base junction is
reverse-biased.
Of the three currents IB is very small in comparison to IE
and IC.
Beta is the current gain of a transistor. This the ratio of
IC/IB.

Summary
A transistor can be operated as an electronics switch.
When the transistor is off it is in cutoff condition (no
current).
When the transistor is on, it is in saturation condition
(maximum current).

Beta can vary with temperature and also varies from

transistor to transistor.