BUILDING

SERVICES 2
Electricity

What is Electricity?

Electricity is generated from the motion of

tiny charged atomic particles called
electrons and protons!
electron

Protons = +
Electrons =

neutron

proton

Sources of Electricity
Thermal
Solar

Hydroelectric

Geothermal
Wind

Nuclear

How do we get electricity?

Energy from one of the sources is converted by machines at the

power plant to Electricity and then put onto the Electric Power Grid

Electric Power Grid

Power Plants
Transmission Lines
Substations
Power Lines
Transformers
Electrical Wiring and Circuit Box

Circuit Symbols
Power Source
Wiring or Conductors
(insulated side and ground)
Control Device (switch)
Load
Circuit Protection (fuse)

Think of what has to happen to turn

on a light

Alternator provides power for running vehicle

Alternator provides power for running vehicle

Assignment 1 :
Schematic Electrical layout of your
residence

Current and voltage

Current is the rate at which electric

charge flows past a point in a circuit.
Voltage is the electrical force that
would drive an electric current between
two points.

LAWS OF ELECTRICAL
CIRCUITS

Ohms Law
Kirchhoffs
law

Ohms Law
The current flowing in a conductor is
Directly proportional to the applied
voltage V
and
Inversely proportional to its
resistance R

I = V/R

Kirchhoffs law
Kirchhoffs current law
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

Kirchhoffs current law

At any instant the algebraic sum of the currents
flowing
into any junction in a circuit is

zero

For example

I1 I2 I3 = 0
I2 = I1 I3
= 10 3
=7A

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

At any instant the algebraic sum of the
voltages
around any loop in a circuit is
For example

Zero
E V 1 V2 = 0
V1 = E V2
= 12 7
= 5V

Electrical Service
Electrical services are available in
Single-phase current
or
Three-phase current (poly-phase).

Single Phase Current

With single-phase current, the voltage rises to a peak in one
direction of flow, subsides to zero, reverses, rises to a peak in
the opposite direction, subsides to zero, and so on.
The cycle repeats itself 60 times every second, which is where
we get the term 60-cycle or 60-hertz alternating current.
Single-phase current requires the use of one transformer.

Three-Phase Current
In the case of three-phase current, the same
pattern exists, except that there are three
separate and distinct single-phase currents,
which are combined so they can be
transmitted over three or four wires.
The three currents rise to a peak in one
direction, subside, reverse, and so on;
however they do not peak at the same time.
Each phase reaches its peak 120 degrees
apart from the others.
Three-phase current requires two or three
transformers.

What is Earthing?

The process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical

apparatus and equipment to huge mass of earth by a wire
having negligible resistance is called Earthing.
The term earthing means connecting the neutral point of
supply system or the non current carrying parts of the electrical
apparatus to the general mass of earth in such a manner that
all times an immediate discharge of electrical energy takes place without
danger.

Concept of Earthing Systems

All the people living or working in residential, commercial
and industrial installations, particularly the operators and
personnel who are in close operation and contact with electrical
systems and machineries, should essentially be protected
against possible electrification. To achieve this protection,
earthing system of an installation is defined, designed and
installed according to the standard requirements..

Good Earthing Means

Good Earthing must have low impedance enough to ensure

that sufficient currentcan flow through the safety device so
thatit disconnects the supply ( <0.4 sec ).
Fault current is much more than the full load current of the
circuit which melts the fuse. Hence, the appliance is
disconnected automatically from the supply mains.

Qualities Of Good Earthing

Must be of low electrical resistance
Must be of good corrosion resistance
Must be able to dissipate high fault current
repeatedly

Purpose/objectives of Earthing
To save human life from danger of electrical shock or death by blowing a fuse
(i.e. To provide an alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it will not
endanger the user)

To protect buildings, machinery & appliances under fault conditions

(i.e. To ensure that all exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous
potential.)

To provide safe path to dissipate lightning and short circuit currents .

To provide stable platform for operation of sensitive electronic
equipments
(i.e. To maintain the voltage at any part of an electrical system at a known value so
as to prevent over current or excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment .

To provide protection against static electricity from friction

Methods of Earthing
Conventional Earthing
Maintenance Free Earthing

Conventional Earthing
The Conventional system of

Earthing calls for digging of a

large pit into which a GI pipe or a
copper plate is positioned in the
middle layers of charcoal and salt.

It requires maintenance and

pouring of water at regular interval.

Maintenance Free Earthing

It is a new type of earthing system which is Readymade, standardized and
scientifically developed.
Its Benefits are

MAINTENANCE FREE: No need to pour water at regular interval- except in sandy

soil.

CONSISTENCY: Maintain stable and consistent earth resistance around the

year.

MORE SURFACE AREA: The conductive compound creates a conductive zone, which
provides the increased surface area for peak current dissipation. And also get stable
reference point.

LOW EARTH RESISTANCE: Highly conductive. Carries high peak current repeatedly.
NO CORROSION.
LONG LIFE.
EASY INSTALLATION.

Methods of Conventional Earthing

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Plate Earthing
Pipe Earthing
Rod Earthing
Strip Earthing
Earthing through Water Mains

Earthing Electrode
The resistance of a ground
electrode has 3 basic
components:
It consist of three basic
components:
1. Earth Wire
2. Connector
3. Electrode

Plate Earthing
In

this type of earthing plate either of copper or of G.I.

is buried into the ground at a depth of not less than 3 meter
from the ground level.

The earth plate is embedded

in alternative layer of coal

and salts for a minimum thickness of about 15cm.

The

earth wire(copper wire for copper plate earthing and

G.I. wire for G.I. plate earthing) is securely bolted to an earth
plate with the help of bolt nut and washer made of copper, in
case of copper plate earthing and of G.I. in case of G.I. plate
earthing.

PLATE EARTHING

Pipe earthing

Pipe earthing is best form of earthing and it is cheap also in this system of
earthing a GI pipe of 38 mm dia and 2meters length is embedded
vertically in ground to work as earth electrode but the depth depend upon
the soil conditions, there is no hard and fast rule for this.

The earth wire are fastened to the top section of the pipe with nut and
bolts.

The pit area around the GI pipe filled with salt and coal
mixture for improving the soil conditions and efficiency of the earthing
system.

It can take heavy leakage current for the same electrode size in
comparison to plate earthing.

The earth wire connection with GI pipes being above the ground level can be
checked for carrying out continuity test as and when desired, while in plate
earthing it is difficult.

In summer season to have an effective earthing three or four bucket of water

is put through the funnel for better continuity of earthing.

PIPE EARTHING

Rod earthing
This

system of earthing is suitable for area which are

sandy in character .

This system of earthing is very cheap

In this system of earthing 12.5mm diameter

solid
rods of copper/ solid rod of GI or steel, into hollow
section of 25mm GI pipe of length not less than 3
meters are driven vertically into the earth

In

order to increase the embedded length of electrode

under the ground, which is some time necessary to
reduce the earth resistance to desired value more than
one rod section are hammered one above the other.

Strip or wire earthing

This type of earthing is used in rocky soil earth bed
because at such places excavation work for plate earthing is
difficult

In this system of earthing strip electrode of cross section not

less than 25mm into 1.6mm of copper or 25mm * 4mm of GI

or steel are buried in horizontal trenches of minimum
depth of 0.5m

The length of buried conductor shall be sufficient to give the

required earth resistance (about 0.5to 1.5)

It shall however be not less than 15 m

The electrode shall be as widely distributed as possible in a

single straight or circular trenches radiating from a

point

Types of earthing
Internationally, it has been agreed to classify the earthing systems
as

TN SYSTEM
TT SYSTEM
IT SYSTEM

Nomenclature
The first letter indicates the connection between earth and
the power-supply equipment (generator or transformer)
T:direct connection of a point with earth
I:no point is connected with earth (isolation),
The second letter indicates the connection between earth and
the electrical device being supplied:
T:direct connection with earth, independent of any
other earth connection in the supply system
N:connection to earth via the supply network

TN SYSTEM
In a TN earthing system,
one of the points in the generator or transformer is
connected with earth, usually the star point in a threephase system.
The body of the electrical device is connected with
earth via this earth connection
at the transformer
The conductor that connects the exposed
metallic parts of the consumer is called
protective earth PE
The conductor that connects to the star point
in a three-phase system, or that carries the
return current in a single-phase system is
called neutral N

Three variants of TN systems are distinguished

separate protective earth (PE) and neutral (N)
TNS:
conductors from transformer to consuming device, which
are not connected at any point after the building distribution
point.

TN-C: combined PE and N conductor all the way from the

transformer to the consuming device.

 TN-C-S earthing system: combined PEN conductor from

transformer to building distribution point, but separate PE and N

conductors in fixed indoor wiring and flexible power cords.

TT SYSTEM
In a TT earthing system,
the protective earth connection of the consumer is
provided by a local connection to earth, independent of
any earth connection at the generator.

IT SYSTEM
In an IT network,
the distribution system has no connection to earth
at all,
or it has only a high impedance connection.

Electrical basic
Resistor

A resistor is a circuit element that dissipates electrical energy

(usually as heat)
Real-world devices that are modelled by resistors are
incandescent light bulbs, heating elements like heaters, stove
etc, long wires
Resistance is measured in OHMS ()

Electrical wiring
systems
Aconductoris an object or type of material which
permits the flow ofelectric chargesin one or more
directions. A conductor comprises a single metallic core with
or without an insulating envelope.

A cable is made up of number of conductors, electrically

separated, but jointed mechanically, generally enclosed in a
protective flexible sheath.

Cableways refers to conductors and / or cables together

with the means of support and protection, etc. FOR EXAMPLE
: cable trays, ladders, ducts, trenches, and so onare all
cableways.

Electrical wiring
systems
The method of installation consists of taking a suitable type
of cable, giving it adequate protection and putting it into the
building in some way.
We have to consider
1. Types of cable
2. Methods of protection
3. Methods of installation

Electrical wiring
systems
The commonest conductor used in cables is
used is

copper. The only other conductor

aluminium.

Every conductor must be insulated to keep them apart, keep the flow of current
within the conductor and prevent its leaving of leaking from the conductor at
random along its length.

Types of insulation

Thermoplastic PVC

Thermosetting insulation

Butyl rubber
Silicone rubber
Glass
Paper

A Single core cable consist of stranded conductors

twisted together and housed in a PVC covering.
Coaxial cable, is a type of
cable that has an inner
conductor surrounded by a
tubular insulating layer,
surrounded by a tubular
conducting shield.
A multicore cable is a
generic term for an
electrical cable that has
multiple cores made of
copper wire

Coaxial cable

Electrical wiring
systems
Methods of protection
The protection against mechanical
damage given to cable is sometimes part of
the cable itself, as with PVC insulated PVC
sheathed cables and sometimes part of the
method of installation as with conduit

systems.
In conduit system the cables are drawn
into tubing called conduit. The conduit
can be steel or plastic. Steel conduit is made
in both light gauge and heavy gauge, of
which heavy gauge is much more used
frequently used.

Electrical wiring
systems
Conduits
An electrical conduit is a tubing system used for
protection and routing of electrical wiring.
Electrical conduit may be made of metal, plastic, fiber,
or fired clay. Flexible conduit is available for special
purposes.
An electrical conduit (EC) is a piping system that is
used to carry electrical wiring for either power or
communication. These piping systems are
commonly referred to as raceways.

Electrical wiring systems

Domestic and commercial buildings
CONDUIT
In addition to the boxes, other fittings are made for use with conduit.
These includes the sockets and bushes needed to make
connections and also bends and inspection covers.
The use of bends and inspection covers is not, however, regarded
as good practice, because they provide inadequate room for drawing
in cable and because they look unsightly when the installation is
completed.
For long lengths of run, inspection sleeves are available.

Types of conduits.
There are six types of conduits used for wiring.
Type 1 - Rigid Non Metallic Conduit (PVC)
Type 2 - Rigid Metal Conduit (RMC) / Rigid Steel
Conduit (RSC)
Type 3 - Intermediate Metal Conduit (IMC)
Type 4 - Galvanized Rigid Conduit (GRC)
Type 5 - Electrical Metal Tubing (EMT)
Type 6 - Flexible Metal Conduit (FMC)

Type 1 - Rigid Non Metallic Conduit (PVC)

PVC is made from a combination of both plastic and vinyl.
PVC pipes can be installed above ground, underground or encased in
cement.
PVCs are most commonly used underground.
These pipes are light weight, flexible, impact resistant, non
conductive, ultraviolet resistant and corrosion resistant.
They are popular because they have watertight joints and low
installation costs. They are not interchangeable with other ECs.

Type 2 - Rigid Metal Conduit (RMC) / Rigid Steel

Conduit (RSC)
RVCs and RSCs are your heaviest and thickest option, typically
made of coated steel, stainless steel, red brass or aluminum.
These pipes can be installed above ground or underground.
They are similar in appearance to metal water pipes and are
threaded at both ends. The threads on the uncoupled end of the pipes
are covered by industry color-coded thread protectors, which
protect the threads, keeping them clean and sharp.
Although RMCs and RSDs are generally corrosive resistant, a layer
of PVC or zinc can be added in areas that are wet or highly corrosive.

Type 3 - Intermediate Metal Conduit (IMC)

If you opt for an organic coating you check for heat restrictions.
They are interchangeable with GRCs.

Type 4 - Galvanized Rigid Conduit (GRC)

GRCs are created by taking one of your above RMC, RSD, or IMC and
galvanizing it via hot dipping it in zinc. The zinc coating provides extra
coating in areas that are wet, or highly corrosive.
GRCs are interchangeable with most RMC, RSD, and IMC to use when only an
area of your piping is in need of additional protection.
PVC coating can be added on top of GRC coating for ECs that will be
exposed to chemicals and other highly abrasive materials.

Type 5 - Electrical Metal Tubing (EMT)

An EMT conduit is made of steel, in some cases aluminium also used,
cheaper and lighter than galvanized rigid conduit.
Its very popular material in commercial and industrial buildings because
it can be bent o specific radius and direction

Type 6 - Flexible Metal Conduit (FMC)

This is your option for areas that need to sustain large amounts of
movement and vibration. They are found with stainless steel,
galvanized steel or aluminum.
They are available as water proof if needed and are installed
above ground. The appearance is similar to that of metallic armoured
cable. They are often used when wiring motors and are not
interchangeable with other ECs.

PVC Fittings and accessories couplers

1.Couplers
2.Elbow
3.Bends
4.Tee
5.Circular boxes
6.Rectangular boxes.

Couplers

Tees

Elbow

Circular boxes

Bends

Rectangular boxes

PVC coupling

Clip with pin

Rigid conduit
box adapter

PVC elbow

T coupling

collar clip

Snap clip

Junction Boxes

ELECTRICAL WIRING SYSTEMS . .

BUSBAR
Definition
An aluminum or copper conductor supported by
Insulators that Interconnects the loads and the
sources of electric power in an electric power
system.
A typical application Is the interconnection of the
incoming and outgoing transmission lines and
transformers at an electrical substation.
Busbars also Interconnect the generator and the
main transformers In a power plant.
In an industrial plant such as an aluminum smelter, large
busbars supply several tens of thousands of amperes to
electrolytic process.

ELECTRICAL WIRING SYSTEMS

TYPES OF BUSBAR
The major types are

(1) Rigid bus-bars, used at low, medium, and high voltage

The rigid bus-bar is an aluminum or copper bar, which is supported by porcelain
insulators.

(2) Strain bus-bars, used mainly for high voltage

The strain bus-bar is a flexible, stranded conductor which is strung between substation
metal
structures and held by suspension-type insulators.

(3) Insulated-phase bus-bars, used at medium voltage

The insulated-phase bus-bar is a rigid bar supported by insulators and covered by a
grounded metal shield. The main advantage of this system is the elimination of short
circuits between adjacent phases.

(4) Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)-insulated bus-bars, used in medium- and highvoltage systems
The sulfur hexafluoride-insulated bus-bar is a rigid aluminum tube, supported by

ELECTRICAL WIRING SYSTEMS

TYPES OF BUSBAR
According to size 3 types
* Tubular bus bar
* Solid bus bar
* Flat bus bar
According to capacity 4 type
* Extra high voltage bus
* high voltage bus
* medium voltage bus
* low voltage bus

Busways, also referred to as busbar trunking systems,

stand out for their ease of installation, flexibility and number of
possible connection points
A busbar trunking system comprises a set of conductors
protected by an enclosure Used for the transmission and
distribution of electrical power, busbar trunking systems
have all the necessary features for fitting: connectors,
straights, angles, fixings, etc. The tap-off points placed at
regular intervals make power available at every point in the
installation.

Busbar trunking systems are present at every level in

electrical distribution: from the link between the
transformer and the low voltage switch
switchboard (MLVS) to the distribution of power
sockets and lighting to offices, or power distribution
to workshops.
We talk about a distributed network architecture.
There are essentially three categories of busways.

1)Transformer to MLVS busbar trunking .

Installation of the busway may be considered as
permanent and will most likely never be modified. There
are no tap-off points.
Frequently used for short runs, it is almost always used for
ratings above 1,600 /2,000 a, i.e. when the use of parallel
cables makes installation impossible. Busways are also used
between the MLVS and downstream distribution switchboards.
The characteristics of main-distribution busways authorize
operational currents from1,000 to 5,000 A and short-circuit
withstands up to 150 kA.

2) Sub-distribution busbar trunking with low or

high tap-off densities
Downstream of main-distribution busbar trunking , two types of applications
must be
supplied:
- Mid-sized premises (industrial workshops with injection presses and
metalwork machines or large supermarkets with heavy loads).
The short-circuit and current levels can be fairly high (respectively 20 to 70
kA and 100 to 1,000 A)
- Small sites (workshops with machine-tools, textile factories with small
machines, supermarkets with small loads). The short-circuit and current levels
are lower (respectively 10 to 40 kA and 40 to 400 A)
Sub-distribution using busbar trunking meets user needs in terms of:
-Modifications and upgrades given the high number of tap-off points
-Dependability and continuity of service because tap-off units can be
connected under energized conditions in complete safety
The sub-distribution concept is also valid for vertical distribution in the
form of 100 to

3)Lighting distribution busbar trunking

Lighting circuits can be distributed using two types of busbar
trunking according to whether the lighting fixtures are suspended from
the busbar trunking or not.
-busbar trunking designed for the suspension of lighting
fixtures
These busways supply and support light fixtures (industrial reflectors,
discharge lamps, etc.). They are used in industrial buildings,
supermarkets, department stores and warehouses.
The busbar trunkings are very rigid and are designed for one or two 25
A or 40 A circuits. They have tap-off outlets every 0.5 to 1 m.
-busbar trunking not designed for the suspension of lighting fixtures
Similar to prefabricated cable systems, these busways are used to
supply all types of lighting fixtures secured to the building structure. They
are used in commercial buildings (offices, shops, restaurants, hotels,
etc.), especially in false ceilings. The busbar trunking is flexible and
designed for one 20 A circuit. It has tap-off outlets every 1.2 m to 3 m.
Busbar trunking systems are suited to the requirements of a large
number of buildings.

Flexible busbar trunking not capable of supporting

light fittings: Canalis KDP (20 A)

Rigid busbar trunking able to support light

fittings: Canalis KBA or KBB (25 and 40 A)

Lighting duct: Canalis KBX (25 A)

A busway for medium power distribution: Canalis KN

(40 up to 160 A)

A busway for medium power distribution:

Canalis KS (100 up to 1000A)

A busway for high power distribution:

Canalis KT (800 up to 1000 A)

The advantages of busbar trunking systems

Flexibility

Easy to change configuration (on-site modification to change production line

configuration or extend production areas).
Reusing components (components are kept intact): when an installation is
subject to major modifications, the busbar trunking is easy to dismantle and
reuse.
Power availability throughout the installation (possibility of having a tap-off
point every meter).
Wide choice of tap-off units.

Simplicity

Design can be carried out independently from the distribution and layout of
current consumers.
Performances are independent of implementation: the use of cables
requires a lot of de-rating coefficients.
Clear distribution layout
Reduction of fitting time: the trunking system allows fitting times to be
reduced by up to 50% compared with a traditional cable installation.
Manufacturers guarantee.
Controlled execution times: the trunking system concept guarantees that
there are no unexpected surprises when fitting. The fitting time is clearly known
in advance and a quick solution can be provided to any problems on site with this

Dependability
Reliability guaranteed by being factory-built
Fool-proof units
Sequential assembly of straight components and tapoff units making it impossible to make any mistakes

Continuity of service

The large number of tap-off points makes it easy to

supply power to any new current consumer. Connecting and
disconnecting is quick and can be carried out in complete
safety even when energized. These two operations (adding
or modifying) take place without having to stop operations.
Quick and easy fault location since current consumers
are near to the line
Maintenance is non existent or greatly reduced

Major contribution to sustainable development

Busbar trunking systems allow circuits to be combined. Compared with a
traditional cable distribution system, consumption of copper raw materials and
insulators is divided by 3 due to the busbar trunking distributed network concept

Reusable device and all of its components are fully

recyclable.
Does not contain PVC and does not generate toxic gases
or waste.
Reduction of risks due to exposure to electromagnetic
fields.

TRACK LIGHTING
Lighting for a room or other area in which
individual light fixtures are attached
along a narrow, wall- or ceiling-mounted
metal track through which current is
conducted, permitting flexible positioning
of the lights.

TRACK LIGHTING - CABLE LIGHTING

Cable lighting systems are most commonly used in spaces with
challenging mounting surfaces.
Consider them in rooms with very high ceilings, cathedral or vaulted
ceilings and ceilings interrupted by soffits, beams or exposed ductwork.
In these situations, short runs (under twenty feet) may typically be
installed from wall to wall without any vertical support at all. In situations
requiring longer cable runs additional vertical support is
recommended to prevent excessive tension from stressing the
mounting points on the wall.

TRACK LIGHTING LINE VOLTAGE MONO RAIL

Line voltage monorail lighting systems share a striking, shapeable
metallic rail structure with the more common low voltage monorail
systems, but they do not require the use of a transformer.

TRACK LIGHTING - LOW VOLTAGE MONO RAIL

Monorail lighting systems are characterized by
their eye-catching, shapeable metallic rails
which are used to both power and suspend
light fixtures.
Monorail lighting system limitations (low
Voltage Monorail vs. Line Voltage Monorail)
Most monorail lighting systems are low
voltage.
One significant limitation of these systems is
that the total wattage of all fixtures on the
system is limited to 300 watts (at 12 volts or
600 watts at 24 volts).

POWER HANDLING EQUIPMENT LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS

Lightning conductors were originally developed by Benjamin Franklin. A lightning
rod is a metal rod
attached to the roof of a building. The rod might be an inch (2 cm) in diameter. It
connects to a huge piece of copper or aluminum wire thats around an inch in
diameter. The wire Is connected to a conductive grid buried in the ground nearby.
Air Terminals
Also referred to as lightning rods, these inconspicuous copper or aluminum rods are
vertically
mounted on the roof at regular intervals as defined by industry safety standards. The
air terminals
serve as strike receptors, designed to Intercept the lightning strike.
Main Conductors
Constructed of aluminum or copper, these braided cables connect the air
terminals to the other
system components and the grounds.

POWER HANDLING EQUIPMENT LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS

Grounds
A minimum of two ground rods, driven at least 10 feet deep in the earth are required
for all
structures.
The ground terminations direct the dangerous current into the ground, to
eliminate the
chance of injury or damage to the structure.
Special grounding requirements are sometimes necessary in shallow, sandy or rocky
soil, which are addressed in the industry safety standards for installation.

Bonds
Bonding joins metallic bodies (roof components) and grounded building systems to the
main
conductor to ensure conductivity and prevent side flashing (lightning jumping between
two objects.)

Surge Arresters and Suppressors

A surge is an increase in electrical current due to a lightning strike on or
near a power line or utility service.
Surge suppression is installed at the electrical panel/s to prevent the
entrance of over voltages which can cause a fire.
Arresters installed at electrical panels help protect heavy appliances and prevent
fires at the service panel entrances.
Additional devices may be needed to protect other In-house electronics.
Surge protection devices are typically installed In conjunction with a lightning
protection system.

POWER HANDLING EQUIPMENT SWITCH BOARD

POWER HANDUNG EQUIPMENT

SOCKET

POWER HANDLING EQUIPMENT PANEL BOARD

A panel / distribution board is the point at which an incoming-power
supply divides into separate circuits, each of which is controlled
and protected by the fuses or switchgear of the panel board.
A distribution panel board is divided into a number of functional units,
each comprising all the electrical and mechanical elements that
contribute to the fulfillment of a given function.
Distribution switchboards may differ according to the kind of application
and the design principle adopted (notably in the arrangement of the
busbars ). Distribution switchboards according to specific applications.

POWER HANDLING EQUIPMENT PANEL BOARD

Advantages - Functional distribution
The use of functional distribution switchboards has spread to all levels of LV
electrical distribution, from the main LV switchboard (MLVS) to final
distribution switchboards, due to their many advantages:
- System modularity that makes it possible to integrate numerous functions in
a single distribution
switchboard, including protection,
- Distribution switchboard design is fast because it simply involves adding
functional modules
- Prefabricated components can be mounted faster
- Finally, these distribution switchboards are subjected to type tests that ensure a
high degree of
dependability.
- Flexibility and ease in building distribution switchboards
- Time savings at all stages, from design to installation, operation and
modifications or upgrades
- Easy adaptation, for example to meet the specific work habits and standards
in different countries.

SUBSTATIONS
A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution
system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse,
or perform any of several other Important functions.
Between the generating station and consumer, electric power may flow
through several substations at different voltage levels.
A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between
high transmission voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the
interconnection of two different transmission voltages.
Substations generally have switching, protection and control
equipment, and transformers.

SUBSTATIONS
In a large substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short circuits
or overload currents that may occur on the network.
Smaller distribution stations may use re-closer circuit breakers or fuses for
protection of distribution circuits.
Substations themselves do not usually have generators, although a power plant
may have a substation nearby.
Other devices such as capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located
at a substation.

SUBSTATIONS TYPES
Substations may be described
by their voltage class,
their applications within the power system,
the method used to Insulate most connections, and
by the style and materials of the structures used.

Transmission substation
A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines.
The simplest case is where all transmission lines have the same
voltage.
In such cases, the substation contains high-voltage switches that
allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance.

Distribution substation
A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to
the distribution system of an area.
It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the main
transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution
station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local distribution.

Collector substation
In distributed generation protects such as a wind farm, a collector
substation may be required.
It resembles a distribution substation although power flows in the opposite
direction, from many wind turbines up into the transmission grid.

Switching substation
A switching substation is a substation without transformers and operating
only at a single voltage level.
Switching substations are sometimes used as collector and distribution
stations. Sometimes they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or
for parallelizing circuits In case of failure.

SWITCH GEAR
In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of
electrical disconnect switches,
fuses or circuit breakers
used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment.
Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be
done and to clear faults downstream,
This type of equipment is important because it is directly linked to the
reliability of the electricity supply.

COMMUNICATION STRUCTURED CABLING SYSTEM

Structured cabling is
building or campus
telecommunications
cabling infrastructure
that consists of a number of
standardized smaller
elements (hence structured)
called subsystems.

COMMUNICATION STRUCTURED CABLING SYSTEM

A structured cabling system consists of six infrastructure

subsections:
Entrance Facility,
Equipment Room,
Telecommunications Room,
Backbone Cabling,
Horizontal Cabling and
Work Area.

Entrance Facility
Entrance Facility (EF) refers to the entrance to a building for both public and
private
network service cables (as well as antenna transmission lines where
applicable),
including the entrance point at the building wall or floor, and continuing to
the
entrance room or entrance space.
The EF may include the following: Service entrance pathways
. Cables
. Connecting hardware
. Primary (electrical) protection devices
. Transition hardware
. Demarcation point

Equipment Room
The purpose of the Equipment Room (ER) is to provide space and
preserve an
appropriate operating environment for any size telecommunications
equipment.
ERs supply an entire building (or even a campus) while
Telecommunications Room
(TR) only serve one floor of a building or a portion of a floor
ERs are used to:
. Accommodate portions of common control equipment such as voice,
intrusion
detection, data, video, fire alarm, energy management, etc.
. Provide work space for service employees.
. Provide for termination and cross-connection of backbone and horizontal
cables.

Telecommunications Room
The Telecommunications Room (TR) houses the connection point
between the
building backbone and horizontal distribution pathways.
TRs are used to:
. Maintain a controlled environment for the telecommunications equipment,
splice
closures and connecting hardware.
. Provide a point of termination for horizontal and backbone cables on
compatible
connecting hardware

Backbone Pathways and Cabling

Backbone Pathways and Cabling, as the name suggests, carry the signals
between the entrance facilities, equipment rooms and telecommunications
rooms. Pathways
are the vertical and horizontal route of the cable, including support structures.
The
backbone cabling system enables interconnections between EFs, TRs, [Rs, and
main
Horizontal
Pathways and Cabling
terminal
space.
The backbone
also
extends
in a campus
Horizontal
Pathways
and Cabling
provide
thebetween
method buildings
of conveying
signals
environment.
between
the telecommunications outlet/connector in the Work Area (WA) and the HC.
This
kind of cabling and its connecting hardware are known as a link.

Work Area
The Work Area consists of the communication outlets (wall boxes and
faceplates), wiring, and connectors needed to connect the work area
equipment (computers, printers, etc.) via the horizontal wiring subsystem to
the IR.
. The standard requires that a minimum of two outlets be provided at
each wall
plate - one for voice and one for data.
. Horizontal cable lengths must take into consideration the maximum
length of
work area cables to be utilized.
. Patch cords are designed to provide easy routing changes, and the
equipment cords are considered to have performance equivalent to patch
cords of the same kind and category

Cross-Connect
Cross-connects facilitate the termination of cabling elements and their connections
to other elements of the system.
Cross-connects are housed in ERs and TRs.
They are generally classified as follows:
. Main cross-connect (MC): Transition point between the entrance cables and
backbone cabling.
. Intermediate cross-connect (IC): Transition point between the backbone cable of
the MC and HC.
. Horizontal cross-connect (HC): Transition point between backbone cabling and
horizontal cabling, typically serving a single floor or portion of a floor.

COMMUNICATION CABLE TYPES

Category 5 cabling is an out-of-date standard for Ethernet cabling, which is
capable of speeds
up to 100 megabits per second.
Cat5e Category 5e is an improvement on the original Cat5 design. From the
outside they look the same, but Cat5e is capable of speeds up to 1,000 megabits per
second. This is because Cat5 and Cat5e cable both have 4 pairs of wires inside, but
Cat5 only utilizes 2 pairs at a time while Cat5e uses all four. The other
improvement comes from tighter twisting of those wires. Cat5 was prone to
crosstalk, interference between wire pairs, which the tighter twisting in Cat5e
remedies.
Cat6 Cat6 twists the pairs even tighter, and Insulates each pair In its own sheath,
which prevents crosstalk even in areas with outside interference. Its other
improvement is that it handles information at a higher frequency (250MHz instead of
the previous 100MHz), which translates to speeds up to 10,000 megabits per second.

COMMUNICATION CABLE TYPES

Structured cabling design and installation Is governed by a set of standards that
specify wiring data centers, offices, and apartment buildings for data or voice
communications using various kinds of cable, most commonly category Se (CAT5e), category 6 (CAT-6), and fibre optic cabling and modular connectors.

PATHWAYS
COMMUNICATION PATHWAYS
A pathway is the physical route and space taken by
cables between their start and endpoints. The
cost of pathway construction can exceed that of
the cabling. The correct selection and design of
pathways is vital to electrical code compliance,
cost optimization, and future utility.
- Conduits
- Cable trays
- Surface Molding
- Raised Flooring
- Rack Roofs
Holocom PDS

COMMUNICATION PATHWAYS
Modular Cable System
This flexible tube system allows the required number of fibres of the needed
type to be blown in at any time. The network can thus be expanded In stages,
thus also enabling just-in-time installation at lower cost
Upgrading fibres is easy and exchanged fibres or MiniCables can be re-used.
Typical applications are access networks (last mile) and in-house cabling
systems without requiring any sub-distributors, floor distributors or splices
from the central to final point. The fibre can be laid directly to the workstation.