GSM INTRODUCTION

ADA CELLWORKS PVT LTD

www.studygalaxy.com

INTRODUCTION

The global system for mobile communications (GSM) is

a set of recommendations and specifications for a digital
cellular telephone network (known as a Public Land Mobile
Network, or PLMN). These recommendations ensure the
compatibility of equipment from different GSM
manufacturers, and interconnectivity between different
administrations, including operations across international
boundaries.

THE GSM NETWORK

The GSM network is comprised of the following components :

Network Elements
The GSM network incorporates a number of network elements to
support mobile equipment. They are listed and described in the GSM
network elements section of this chapter.
GSM subsystems
In addition, the network includes subsystems that are not formally
recognized as network elements but are necessary for network
operation. These are described in the GSM subsystems (non-network
elements) section of this chapter.
Standardized Interfaces
GSM specifies standards for interfaces between network elements,
which ensure the connectivity of GSM equipment from different
manufacturers. These are listed in the Standardized interfaces
section of this chapter.

THE GSM NETWORK CONTINUED

Network Protocols

For most of the network communications on these interfaces,

internationally recognized communications protocols have been
used

These are identified in the Network protocols section of this

chapter.

GSM Frequencies
The frequency allocations for GSM
Digital Communications Systems are
frequencies section of this chapter.

900, Extended
identified in

GSM and
the GSM

DIGITAL NETWORKS

GSM networks are digital and can cater for high

system capacities. They are consistent with the world
wide digitization of the telephone network, and are an
extension of the Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN), using a digital radio interface between the
cellular network and the mobile subscriber equipment.

INCREASED CAPACITY

The GSM system provides a greater subscriber capacity than

analogue systems. GSM allows 25 kHz. Per user, that is, eight
conversations per 200kHz. Channel pair (a pair comprising one
transmit channel and one receive channel). Digital channel coding and
the modulation used makes the signal resistant to interference from the
cells where the same frequencies are re-used (co-channel
interference); a Carrier to Interference Ratio (C/I) level of 9 dB is
achieved, as opposed to the 18 dB typical with analogue cellular. This
allows increased geographic reuse by permitting a reduction in the
number of cells in the reuse pattern. Since this number is directly
controlled by the amount of interference, the radio transmission design
can deliver acceptable performance.

CGI : CELL GLOBAL

IDENTITY
LAI
MCC

MNC

LAC

CGI

MCC = Mobile Country Code

MNC = Mobile Network Code
LAC = Location Area Code
CI
= Cell Identity

CI

MSISDN
CC

98

NDC

SN

XXX

12345

CC = Country Code
NDC = National Destination Code
SN = Subscriber Number

MSISDN

The Mobile Subscriber ISDN (MSISDN)

number is the telephone number of the MS.
This is the number a calling party dials to
reach the subscriber. It is used by the land
network to route calls towards the MSC.

IMSI
IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber
Identity) Network Identity Unique To A
Sim.
MCC
MNC
MSIN
404

XX

12345..10

SIM = Subscriber Identity Module

MCC = Mobile Country Code
MNC = Mobile Network Code
MSIN = Mobile Subscriber Identity Number

IMEI
IMEI : Serial number unique to each mobile
TAC
6

FAC
2

SNR

SP

IMEI = International Mobile Equipment Identity

TAC = Type Approval Code
FAC = Final Assembly Code
SNR = Serial Number
SP = Spare

SUBSCRIBER IDENTIFICATION

International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

Just the IMEI identifies the mobile equipment, other numbers are
used to identify the mobile subscriber. Different subscriber identities
are used in different phases of call setup. The International Mobile
Subscriber Identity (IMSI) is the primary identity of the subscriber
within the mobile network and is permanently assigned to that
subscriber.
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

The GSM system can also assign a Temporary Mobile Subscriber

Identity (TMSI). After the subscribers IMSI has been initialized on
the system, the TMSI can be used for sending backward and
forward across the network to identify the subscriber. The system
automatically changes the TMSI at regular intervals, thus protecting
the subscriber from being identified by someone attempting to
monitor the radio channels. The TMSI is a local number and is
always transmitted with the Local numbers and is always transmitted
with the Location Area Identification (LAI) to avoid ambiguities.

SUBSCRIBER IDENTIFICATION
MODULE (SIM)

By making a distinction between the subscriber identity and

the mobile equipment identity, a GSM PLMN can route calls and
perform billing based on the identity of the subscriber rather
than the mobile equipment being used. This can be done using
a removable Subscriber Information Module (SIM). A smart
card is one possible implementation of a SIM module.

IMSI. This is transmitted at initialization of the mobile

equipment.
TMSI This is updated periodically by the PLMN
MSISDN This is made up of a country code, a national code
and a subscriber number.
Location Area Identity (LAI) This identified the current
location of the subscriber.
Subscriber Authentication Key (KI) This is used to
authenticate the SIM.

EQUIPMENT IDENTITY NUMBER

International Mobile station Equipment Identity (IMEI)

Each MS is identified by an International Mobile station

Equipment Identity (IMEI) number which is permanently stored
in the mobile equipment. On request, the MS sends this number
over the signalling channel to the MSC. The IMEI can be used
to identify MS,s that are reported stolen or operating incorrectly.

Equipment Identity Register ( EIR )

A listing of the allowed IMEI is maintained by the PLMNs in
the Equipment Identity Register (EIR) to validate the mobile
equipment.

Frequency Bands
Uplink

890 915 MHz 25 MHz

Downlink

935 960 MHz 25 MHz

1

100 KHz

200 KHz

124
100 KHz

A 200 KHz carrier spacing has been chosen. Excluding 2x100 KHz edges of
the band, this gives 124 possible carriers for the uplink and downlink. The
use of carrier 1 and 124 are optional for operators.

GSM Network Architecture

BSC
HLR
BTS

TRAU
MSC

BTS
BTS
BTS
BTS

AUC

VLR
SMSC

BSC

EIR

PSTN

MS Mobile Station
MS
SIM

ME

Mobile station provides user access to GSM

network for voice and data
All GSM mobiles comply to GSM standards
Subscriber data is read from a SIM card that plugs
into ME

MS (cont..)
Each MS has a unique number called as
IMEI number, which is stored in EIR for
authentication purposes
Mobile camps on to the GSM network
through the BTS serving the cell
Mobile also scans neighboring cells and
reports signal strengths
Mobile transmits and receives voice at 13
kb/s over the air interface

Mobile Station Output Power

CLASS 1
20 watts Vehicle and Portable
CLASS 2
8 watts Portable and Vehicle
CLASS 3
5 watts Hand-Held
CLASS 4
2 watts Hand-Held (GSM)
CLASS 5
0.8 watts Hand-Held (DCS 1800)
Output power determines:
Accessibility in areas of coverage
Talk Time and Standby time

Mobile Station Identities

MSISDN : Mobile Station ISDN Number
It is the human identity used to call a Mobile
Station

CC

NDC

SN

98

250

00134

MSISDN

CC Country Code
NDC National Destination Code
SN Serial Number

IMSI (International Mobile

Subscriber Identity)

MCC

2 or 3
MNC

MSIN

IMSI

Not more than 15

NMSI

MCC Mobile Country Code

MNC Mobile Network Code
MSIN Mobile Subscriber Identity
Number

IMEI (International Mobile

Equipment Identity)
TAC

FAC

SNR

SP

IMEI

15

TAC Type Approval Code

FAC Factory Assembly Code
SNR Serial Number
SP Spare digit (usually used to specify
software version)

SIM ( Subscriber Identity Module)

Space to insert SIM photo

Removable module inserted when the

subscriber wants to use the ME
Two sizes: credit card size and stamp size
SIM features and contents are
personalized by the Service Activator
ROM 6kb to 16 kb
RAM 128 bytes to 256 bytes
EEPROM 3kb to 8 kb

Contents of SIM
Serial Number
IMSI, Subscriber Key Ki, Ciphering Key Kc
Algorithms for authentication and ciphering
Network Code
PIN, PUK
Charging Information
Abbreviated Dialling
Supplementary Features (e.g. Call barring)

SIM Security
Two level protection
When mobile is turned on, it will ask for user
to enter PIN (Personal Id Number)
3 tries for PIN, after that PIN locked
To unblock PIN, there is PUK (Pin Unblock
Key)
10 attempts of PUK allowed
After that SIM is blocked

BTS (Base Transceiver

Station)

BTS has a set of Transceivers (TRXs) to

communicate with mobiles in its area
One BTS covers one or more than one cell
The capacity of a cell depends on number of
transceivers in the cell
BTS is connected to the BSC through Abis
Interface which is 2Mbps
BTS transmits and receives voice at 13kbps
over air interface to the mobiles.
BTS commands mobiles to set Tx. Power,
timing advance and Handovers

BTS

BSC Base Station

Controller

Several BTSs are connected to the BSC

BSC Manages channel allocation, handovers
and release of channels at connected BTSs
BSC connects to the BTS via the Abis
interface and to the MSC on A interface
BSC has the entire database of cell
parameters associated with the BTSs.
No mobile data is stored in the BSC
Less connections for MSC as intelligence is
made common to all BTSs by the BSC

BSC

TRAU Transcoder Rate

Adaptation Unit
MSC and TRAU
BSC

PSTN

BTS

13 kbps

16 kbps

16 kbps

64 kbps

TRAU (cont..)
The MSC is based on ISDN switching.
The Fixed Network is also ISDN based.
ISDN has speech rate of 64 kbps.
Mobile communicates at 13 kbps.
TRAU converts the data rates between
13kbps GSM rate to 64kbps Standard
ISDN rate
TRAU can be collocated with the BTS,
BSC or MSC or it can be a separate
unit.

Location of Transcoder
Collocated with MSC, BSC, BTS
Separate Unit

MSC

Transco
der

BSC

MSC Mobile Switching Centre

HLR

BSC
BSC

VLR

BSC
BTSs

PSTN

MSC (cont..)
Exchange where calls are established,
maintained and released
Database for all subscribers and their
associated features.
Communicates with the BSCs on the A
interface and with PSTN on fixed line.
MSC is weighted on the number of subscribers
it can support. E.g. an MSC of 1 lac subscribers
means one MSC is enough till subscriber base
increases upto 1 lac, beyond which another
MSC is required.

Multiple MSCs
When there is more capacity, there are more
than one MSCs.
All MSCs have to communicate with one another
and to the outside world.
Very complicated to connect each MSC to each
other and each MSC to PSTN
So there is a concept of GMSC (Gateway MSC)

MSC

BSC

GMSC
BSC

MSC

PSTN

HLR Home Location

Register
MSC has all subscriber database
stored in HLR
HLR has all permanent subscriber
database
HLR has a database which describes
the subscribers profile i.e. basic
features and supplementary services
MSC communicates with the HLR to
get data for subscribers on call

VLR Visiting Location Register

A subscription when activated is registered
in VLR
VLR has all the subscriber numbers which
are active.
VLR has a temporary database of all
active subscribers (on/off, location
information)
HLR

MSC

VLR
VLR

VLR (cont..)
HLR
MSC

VLR
VLR

VLR

MSC

MSC communicates with HLR for

subscribers coming from different MSCs. If
the subscriber is found valid, then it
registers the subscriber in the VLR

AUC Authentication Centre

Authentication is a process by which a SIM

is verified
Secret data and the verification process
algorithm are stored in AUC
AUC is the element which carries out the
verification of the SIM
AUC is associated with the HLR

MS

MSC

HLR

AUC

EIR (Equipment Identity

Register)

EIR is the Mobile Equipment Database

which has a series of IMEIs
MSC asks the Mobile to send its IMEI
MSC then checks the validity of IMEI
with the EIR
All IMEIs are stored in EIR with
relevant classifications
MSC

EIR

Classification of IMEIs
White list: This contains the IMEI of
type approved mobiles
Black List: List of IMEIs which should be
barred because either they are stolen or
are not functioning properly
Grey list: List of IMEIs which are to be
evaluated before they are put in black list

Billing Centre (BC)

BC Generates the billing statement for
each subscriber
BC may be directly connected to the MSC
or through a mediation device
MSC sends CDRs (Call Detail Records) to
the BC
According to the template of pulse rates
and units set, BC creates a bill according
to the destination called and the call
duration

Billing Centre (BC) (cont..)

Templates for unit costs

CDRs

OMC Operations and Maintenance

Centre
Also called the NOC (Network Operations
centre)
It is the central monitoring and remote
maintenance centre for all network
elements
OMC has links to BSCs and MSCs

OMC Operations and Maintenance

Centre
Also called the NOC (Network Operations
centre)
It is the central monitoring and remote
maintenance centre for all network
elements
OMC has links to BSCs and MSCs

OMC
BTSs

BSC

BTSs

BSC

BTSs

BSC

OMC System

OMC Terminals

GSM Channels

GSM Channels
Physical Channel
One time slot on one carrier is called physical
channel.

Logical Channel
Information carried by physical channels is called
logical Channels.
Logical channels are mapped on physical
channels.

Logical Channels
Traffic channels: Used for speech and data
Full Rate(TCH/F)

Half Rate(TCH/H)

Control channels: Used for signaling .i.e. setting up

a radio connection, call or controlling an MS during
conversation
BCH(Broadcast channels)
CCCH(common control channels)
DCCH(dedicated control channels)

Traffic Channels(TCH)

Traffic Channels(TCH)
TCH/F
(full Rate)

TCH/H
(half Rate)

Control Channels(CCH)
CCH(Control Channel)

BCH

CCH

SCH

CCCH

Synch.
Chanels
FCCH

RACH

CBCH

PCH/
AGCH

DCCH

SDCCH

FACCH

ACCH

SACCH

BCH(Broadcast Channels)
BCCH(Broadcast Control Channels)
Downlink Only.
Broadcast information of the serving cell
(System Information).
Transmitted on timeslot zero of BCCH carrier.
Reads only by idle mobile at least once every
30 secs.

BCH(Broadcast Channels) contd

SCH(Synchronisation Channels)
Downlink Only
Carries information for frame synchronisation.
Contains frame number and BSIC(Base Station
Identity Code).

BCH(Broadcast Channels) contd

FCCH(Frequency Correction Channels)
Downlink Only.
Enable MS to synchronies to the frequency.

CCCH(Common Control
Channel)
RACH(Random Access Channel)
Uplink only.
Used by the MS when making its first access
to the Network.
The reason for access could be initiation of a
call or a page response.

CCCH(Common Control
Channel) contd
AGCH(Assess Grant Channel)
Downlink only.
Used for acknowledgement of the access
attempt sent on RACH.
Used by the network to assign a signaling
cannel upon successful decoding of access
bursts.

CCCH(Common Control
Channel) contd
PCH(Paging Channel)
Downlink only.
The network will page the MS ,if there is a
incoming call or a short Message.
It contains the MS identity number, the IMSI or
TMSI.

DCCH(Dedicated Control
Channel)
SDCCH (Stand-alone Dedicated Control
Channel)
Uplink and Downlink.
Used for call setup, authentication, ciphering
location update and SMS.

DCCH(Dedicated Control
Channel) contd
SACCH(Slow Associated Control Channel)
Downlink and Uplink.
Used to transfer signal while MS have ongoing
conversation on traffic or while SDCCH is being
used.
On the forward link, the SACCH is used to send
slow but regularly changing control information
to each mobile on that ARFCN, such as power
control instructions and specific timing advance
instructions

 SACCH(Slow Associated Control Channel)

contd
The reverse SACCH carries information
about the received signal strength and
quality of the TCH, as well as BCH
measurement results from neighboring
cells.

DCCH(Dedicated Control
Channel) contd
FACCH(Fast Associated Control Channel)
Downlink and uplink.
Associate with TCH only.
It is used to send fast message like hand over
message.
Work by stealing traffic bursts.

Mapping on Physical Channels

The Logical channels are mapped on the
physical channels.
The TDMA frames are grouped together into
multi-frame.
26 TDMA multi-frame for Traffic.
51 TDMA multi-frame for control signal.

Channel Combination
Combined
All the controlling signals are in the time slot 0
of the Multi-frame.

Non Combined
Dedicated controlling signals are in time slot 1
of the Multi-frame.

Combined
Cell with single carrier.
Timeslot 0 :BCCH+CCCH+SDCCH.
Timeslot 1-7 :TCH/FACCH+SACCH.

Non Combined
Cell with Two carrier
Timeslot 0 (of carrier 1) BCCH+CCCH.
Timeslot 1 (of carrier1) SDCCH+SACCH.
Timeslot 2-7 & 0-7(of both carriers)
TCH/FACCH+SACCH.

 SYSTEM INFORMATION

SYSTEM INFORMATION 1
When frequency hopping is used in cell MS needs to know
which frequency band to use and what frequency within the
band it should use in hopping algorithm.
Cell channel description
Cell Allocation Number(CANO)-Informs the band
number of the frequency channels used.
00-Band 0(current GSM band)
Cell Allocation ARFCN(CA ARFCN):- ARFCNs
used for hopping.It is coded in a bitmap of 124 bits.

SYTEM INFORMATION 1
124

123

122

121

024

023

022

021

020

019

018

017

016

015

014

013

012

011

010

009

008

007

006

005

004

003

002

001

SYSTEM INFORMATION 1
RACH Control Parameters

Access Control Class(ACC) :-Bitmap with 16 bits.

All MS spread out on class 0 9 . Priority groups use
class 11-15. A bit set to 1 barred access for that class.
Bit 10 is used to tell the MS if emergency call is
allowed
or not.
0 All MS can make emergency call.
1 - MS with class 11-15 only can
make emergency calls.
Cell barred for access(CB):0- Yes
1- No

SYSTEM INFORMATION 1
RACH Control Parameters
Re-establishment allowed(RE):0- Yes
1- No
Max_retransmissions(MAXRET):-Number of times
the MS attempts to access the Network [1,2,4 or 7].
Tx-integer(TX):- Number of slots to spread access
retransmissions when a MS attempts to access
the system.
Emergency call allowed:- Yes/No.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 2
System Information Type 2 message consists of
the Double BA list which defines the BCCH
frequencies used in the neighboring cells.
The Double BA list provides the MS with different
frequencies on which to measure, depending on
whether the MS is in idle or active mode.
In active mode, the MS should measure on a
reduced number of frequencies in order to improve
the accuracy of measurements.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 2
In Idle mode,the MS should measure on larger
number of frequencies, so that the time required
for the MS to access the network after power on is
reduced.
The MS is also informed which PLMNs it may use.
As well as System Information Type 2,it is also
possible to have System Information Type 2 Bis
and System information Type 2 Ater, depending on
the size of the BA List.
System Information Type 2 Bis/Ter are optional.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 2
Neighbor Cell Description:-

BA Indicator(BA IND):- Allows to differentiate

measurement results related to different list of BCCH
frequencies sent to MS.
BCCH Allocation number(BANO):Band 0 is used.
PLMN Permitted(NCCPERM):-This the PLMN
color codes permitted and tells the MS which network
color codes(NCC) on the BCCH carriers it is allowed
to monitor when it is in this cell.
.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 2
RACH Control Parameters

Access Control Class(ACC) :-Bitmap with 16 bits.

All MS spread out on class 0 9 . Priority groups use
class
11-15. A bit set to 1 barred access for
that
class. Bit 10 is used to tell the MS if emergency call is
allowed or not.
0 All MS can make emergency call.
1 - MS with class 11-15 only can
make emergency calls.
Cell barred for access(CB):0- Yes
1- No

SYSTEM INFORMATION 2
Re-establishment allowed(RE):0- Yes
1- No
Max_retransmissions(MAXRET):-Number of times
the MS attempts to access the Network [1,2,4 or 7].
Tx-integer(TX):- Number of slots to spread access
retransmissions when a MS attempts to access
the system.
Emergency call allowed:- Yes/No.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 2
BCCH ARFCN Number(BAIND):- ARFCNs used
for in a Bitmap of 124 bits
124

123

122

121

024

023

022

021

020

019

018

017

016

015

014

013

012

011

010

009

008

007

006

005

004

003

002

001

SYSTEM INFORMATION 3
The System Information Type 3 contains information on the
identity of the current LA and cell identity, because a
change means that the MS must update the network.
System Information 3 also as Control Channel Description
parameters used to calculate the Paging group.
When the MS is in idle mode it decides which cells to lock
to. Information needed by the MS for cell selection is also
broadcast in the Type 3 information.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 3
LOCATION AREA IDENTITTY(LAI)
8

7
6
MCC DIG 2
1
1
1
MNC DIG 2

5
1

3
MCC DIG
MCC DIG
MNC DIG

LAC
LAC
CELL IDENTITY
CI
CI

2
1
1
1

SYSTEM INFORMATION 3
Control Channel Description
Attach / Detach(ATT):0 = Allowed
1 = Not Allowed
bs_agblk:-Number of block reserved for AGCH [0-7]
Ba_pmfrms:-Number of 51 frame multi-frames
between transmission of paging messages to MS of
the same group
T3212:- Periodic location update timer .
[1-255 deci hours].

SYSTEM INFORMATION 3
cch_conf Physical channels
0 1 timeslot(0)
1 1 timeslot(0)
2 2 timeslot(0,2)
4 3 timeslot(0,2,4)
6 4 timeslot(0,2,4,6)

combined
No
Yes
No
No
No

No. of CCH
9
3
18
27
36

SYSTEM INFORMATION 3
Cell options

DTX:-Whether Discontinuous Transmission used

or
not.
PWRC:-Power control on the downlink.
0 = Not used.
1 = Used.
Radio link timeout(RLINKT):-Radio link time-out
is the time before an MS disconnects due to
failure in decoding SACCH message. Sets the
timer T100 in the
MS.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 3
Cell Selection Parameters
Rxlev_access_min:- Minimum received signal level
at the MS for which it is permitted to access the
system.
0-63 = -100 dBm to 47 dBm.
Mx_txpwr_cch:- Maximum power the MS will use when
accessing the system.
Cell_reselect_hysteresis:- Used for cell reselection.

RACH Control Parameters.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 4
Location Area Identification.
Cell Selection Parameters
Rxlev_access_min:- Minimum received signal level
at the MS for which it is permitted to access the
system.
0-63 = -100 dBm to 47 dBm.
Mx_txpwr_cch:- Maximum power the MS will use when
accessing the system.
Cell_reselect_hysteresis:- Used for cell reselection.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 4
RACH Control Parameters
max_retransmissions(MAXRET)
tx_integer(TX)
barred for access(CB).
establishment allowed(RE)
Emergency Call Allowed
Access Control Class (ACC)

Cell
Re-

SYSTEM INFORMATION 4
CBCH Description(Optional) :
CHN:- This is the channel number for CBCH. It is
controlled internally in BSC.
TSC:- Training Sequence Code. Base Station Color
Code(BCC) part of BSIC is used.
CBCHNO:- Absolute RF channel number of CBCH.
MAC:- Mobile Allocation in the cell, describes the
frequencies to be used in the hopping sequence if
frequency hopping is used.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 4
Hopping Channel(H):-Informs if CBCH Channel is
hopping or single.
ARFCN:- If H=0;
MAIO:- If H=1, informs the MS where to
start hopping.
Values [0-63].
HSN:- If H=1, informs the MS in what order
the
hopping should take place. Values[0 63].
HSN=0
Cyclic Hopping.
MA:-Indicates
which RF Channels are used
for hopping.
ARFCN numbers coded in
bitmap.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 5
Sent on the SACCH on the downlink to the MS in
dedicated mode.
On SAACH, the MS also receives information about the
BCCH carrier in each neighboring cell. This may differ from
those sent in System information type 2.
It is also possible to have system Information Type 5 Bis
and System Information Type 5Ter, depending on the size
of the BA list.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 5
Neighbor Cell Description:BAIND:-Used by the Network to discriminate
measurements results related to different lists of
BCCH
carriers sent by the MS(Type 2 or 5).
Values
0 or 1(different from type 2).
BCCH Allocation
number:-00-Band 0(current GSM
band).

SYSTEM INFORMATION 5
BCCH ARFCN:-Neighboring cells ARFCNs. Sent
as a bitmap.
0-Not used
1-Used.
124

123

122

121

024

023

022

021

020

019

018

017

016

015

014

013

012

011

010

009

008

007

006

005

004

003

002

001

SYSTEM INFORMATION 6
Ms in dedicated mode needs to know if the LA has
changed.If so, it must perform location updating when the
call is released.
MS may change between cells with different Radio link
timeout and DTX.
Cell Identity.
Location Area Identification.
PLMN permitted.

SYSTEM INFORMATION 6
Cell options:
DTX
PWRC
Link timeout.

Radio

SYSTEM INFORMATION 7/8

System Information Types 7 and 8 contain Cell
Reselect parameters. Their function is to
supplement System Information Type 4.

GSM Interfaces

(Um) Air interface

A bis interface
A Interface
B Interface
C interface
-

MS to BTS
BTS to BSC
BSC to MSC
MSC to VLR
MSC to HLR

AUC
To other
Networks
GMSC

D Interface

H Interface
HLR
C Interface
MSC
A Interface

VLR

EIR

B Interface
F Interface

BSC
A bis Interface
Air Interface
MS

GSM Interfaces
The interfaces between MSC and MS is called A,
Abis and Um interfaces.
On these interfaces only three layers are
defined.They are not corresponding to the OSI
(Open System Interconnection) model.

A Interface
A interface between the BSC and the MSC
The A interface provides two distinct types of
information, signalling and traffic, between the
MSC and the BSC.
The speech is transcoded in the TRC and the SS7
(Signalling system) signalling is transparently
connected through the TRC or on a separate link
to the BSC.

Abis Interface
The A-bis interface responsible for transmitting traffic and
signalling information between the BSC and the BTS.
The transmission protocol used for sending signalling
information on the A-bis interface is Link Access Protocol
on the D Channel (LAPD)

(Um) Air Interface

This is the interface between the mobile station and the
Base station.
The Air interface uses the Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) technique to transmit and receive traffic and
signalling information between the BTS and MS.
The TDMA technique is used to divide each carrier into
eight time slots.These time slots are then assigned to
specific users,allowing up to eight conversations to be
handled Simultaneously by the same carrier.

Up Link

2 3

0 Down Link
4

Time Slot
This interface is the radio interface between the
mobile station and the network and uses layer
Three messages.
On Layer three messages we have the division
of message types into CM (communication
Management), MM (Mobility Management), and
RR (Radio Resource Management).

Connection Management (CM)

There are three entities within CM:

Call Control(CC) Which handles the procedures
concerning call control. e.g. setup,Change of bearer
service.
Supplementary Service (SS) Which handles such as
call bearing, call waiting , call forwarding etc.
Short Message Service (SMS) Enables the MS to
handle short message transfer to and from the network.

Mobility Management (MM)

Mobility management handles functions for
authentication, location updating, identification and
others concerning the mobility of the mobile station.

Radio Resource Management

(RR)
It contains the functions concerning the radio link. Here we
find the capability to establish,maintain and release the
radio connection between the network and the mobile
station, which includes the handover procedure.

B Interface
The B interface between the MSC and the VLR uses the
MAP/TCAP protocol.
Most MSCs are associated with a VLR, making the B
interface "internal".
Whenever the MSC needs access to data regarding a MS
located in its area, it interrogates the VLR using the MAP/B
protocol over the B interface.

C Interface
The C interface is between the HLR and a MSC.
Each call originating outside of GSM (i.e., a MS terminating
call from the PSTN) has to go through a Gateway to obtain
the routing information required to complete the call, and
the MAP/TCAP protocol over the C interface is used for
this purpose.
Also, the MSC may optionally forward billing information to
the HLR after call clearing.

D Interface
The D interface is between the VLR and HLR.
It uses the MAP/TCAP protocol to exchange the data
related to the location of the MS and to the management of
the subscriber.

E Interface
The E interface interconnects two MSCs.
The E interface exchanges data related to handover
between the anchor and relay MSCs using the
-MAP/TCAP+ISUP/TUP protocol.

F Interface
The F interface connects the MSC to the EIR.
It uses the MAP/TCAP protocol to verify the status of the
IMEI that the MSC has retrieved from the MS.

G Interface
The G interface interconnects two VLRs of different MSCs.
It uses the MAP/G protocol to transfer subscriber
information, during e.g. a location update procedure.

Encoding and
Interleaving
of Information Signal
in
GSM

Topics for discussion

Speech Encoding
Data Encoding
Interleaving for Voice,Control and Data
signals

Speech Encoding
We shall start with a raw voice signal fed
into the microphone, travel through the
various stages involving vocoding, channel
coding etc till it reaches the final burst
format on the Air Interface.

Speech Encoding ckt

Raw
Voice
signal

Voice
Encoding

Channel
coding

interleaving

RF Modulation

Speech Encoding ckt

The voice is sampled at the rate of 50
samples per second.
This results in 20 msec blocks of speech
Each of this 20 msec block is passed on to
the 13Kbps vocoder.
There are 260 information bits from the
output of the vocoder for every 20 msec
input i.e.; 13Kbps *20msec = 260 bits.

Voice Encoding ckt

Vocoder I/p
20 msec speech
blocks

13Kbps Vocoder

Vocoder O/p
260 bits

Channel coding
Channel Coding is done to protect the
logical channels from transmission errors
introduced by the radio path.
The coding schemes depend on the type of
the logical channels, hence the coding can
differ from speech, control and data .

Channel Coding for speech

260 bits
class 1b

Class
1a
50
Bits

3
parity

132

class 2

4 tail
bits

Convolutional coder
coder, k=5
456 bits=378 bits from Convolution coder + 78 class 2 bits

Channel coding for Speech

The 260 bits of speech info from the vocoder is
broken down into three parts.
Class 1a- 50 bits , these represent the filter
coefficients of the speech and are the most
important for proper detection of the speech at the
receiver and hence are given maximum protection.
3 additional parity bits are derived from the class
1a bits for cyclic redundancy check (CRC).

Channel coding for Speech

contd
Class 1b - 132 bits are not parity checked
but are fed into the convolutional coder
along with 4 tail bits which are used to set
the registers in the receiver to a known state
for decoding purpose.
Class 2- 78 bits, these are not so important
and are not protected but are combined with
the output of the convolution coder.

Control Channel Coding

184 bits
Control data
184
Fire coded

40 4 tail
parity bits
Convolutional Coder
456 bits output

Control Channel Coding

The control information is received in blocks of
184 bits.
These bits are first protected with a cyclic code
called as Fire code, which is useful in correction
and detection of burst errors.
40 Parity bits are added, along with 4 tail bits.
These 228 bits are given to the CC whose output
is again 456 bits at a bitrate of 22.8Kbps.
The control channels include the RACH, PCH,
AGCH etc.

Data Channel Coding

240 bits
Data

4 tail
bits

Convolutional Coder
Output= 488 bits
After Puncturing
Output=456 bits

Data Channel Coding

The data bits are received in blocks of 240 bits.
These are directly convolution coded after adding
4 tail bits.
The output of the CC is now 488 bits, which
actually increases the bitrate to 24.4 Kbps.
To keep the bitrate constant on the air interface we
need to puncture the output of the CC. Hence, we
have a final bitrate of 22.8 Kbps again .

Channel Coding contd

The above explanation was given keeping
in view a full rate Traffic, Control, or Data
channel.
For Half rate or Lesser rates the same
principle of channel coding holds good, with
slight differences in the encoding process.

Interleaving
Having encoded the logical channel
information, the next step is to build its bit
stream into bursts that can be transmitted
within the TDMA frame structure. This is the
stage where the interleaving process is
carried out.
Interleaving spreads the content of one
information block across several TDMA
timeslots or bursts.

Interleaving contd

The following interleaving depths are used :

Speech
8 blocks
Control
4 blocks
Data

22 blocks
The interleaving process for a speech block is
shown wherein which a 456 bit speech block is
divided into 8 blocks of 57 bits each and each of
these odd and even 57 bit blocks are interleaved
diagonally on to alternate bursts on the TDMA
frame.

Speech Interleaving
Speech block
N-1

456 bit speech data

8* 57 bits each = 456 bits
Of Speech block N

T+F

57
57
odd T+F odd
Of N-1
Of N

57
57
Even T+F Even
Of N-1
Of N

The speech is spread over 8 such normal bursts

Each normal burst consists of two blocks of 57 bit speech
from different 20msec blocks (say N, N-1) along with
26 bit training sequence T and 2 flag F plus 6 start stop bits .

Control Data Interleaving

456 bits control data
114

114

114

114

TDMA
Burst blocks
The control data is spread over 4 blocks using rectangular
interleaving instead of diagonal interleaving as in
speech the receiver will have to wait for at least
2 multiframes before being able to decode the control
message

Data Interleaving
456 bit data block
114
First 6
bits

114

114

114

First 6
bits
Last 6
bits

Burst 1

Burst 2

Burst 3

Burst 4

Burst 19

Last 6
bits

Burst 22

Data Interleaving contd

Here the data block of 456 bits is divided into 4
blocks of 114 bits each.
The first 6 bits from each of the 114 bit blocks is
inserted in to each frame, the second 6 bits from
each of the 114 bits into the next frame and so on
spreading each 114 block over 19 TDMA bursts
while the entire 456 bits is spread over 22 TDMA
bursts.
Thus the data interleaving is said to have a depth
of 22 bursts.

Data Interleaving contd

The reason why data is spread over such along
period of time is that if data burst is corrupted or
lost, only a small part of it is lost which can be
reproduced at the receiver.
This wide interleaving depth does produce a time
delay during transmission but that is acceptable
since it does not affect the data signal quality at the
receiver, unlike speech where delay could result in
bad quality of signal to the subscriber.
*Note The interleaving used in data is diagonal
interleaving.

Interleaving Advantage
Before Deinterleaving
3 successive bursts corrupted

After Deinterleaving
The corrupted bursts are spread over a length equal to the
interleaving depth so that the effect of the errors is
minimized.

Air Interface Bitrate

The information which is now coded and
interleaved at 22.8 Kbps now has to be
transmitted over the Air interface to the BTS.
The information burst is not sent directly , but is
sent in ciphered form within a burst envelope. This
ciphering is done using ciphering keys and
algorithms known both by the mobile and the BSS.

Air Interface Bitrate contd

The Kc is the ciphering key and A5
algorithm are applied to the
information(speech or data) which increases
the bitrate to a final rate of 33.8 Kbps
from/to each mobile.
If we assume all 8 timeslots of the cell to be
occupied then the bitrate of the Air interface
comes to 33.8 * 8= 270.4 Kbps/channel.

Air Interface Bitrate contd

Information
Block 22.8 Kbps

Kc

A5 Algorithm
Sent on Air interface
Ciphered information burst
33.8 Kbps

Air Interface Bitrate contd

TDMA Fn

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Cell coverage area

TDMA Fn+1

Cell rxs 8*33.8

KBps = 270.4 Kbps
Per TDMA frame

Mobile
Txs at
33.8 Kbps

Decoding and Deinterleaving at

the Receiver
At the receiver the reverse process of
Deinterleaving and decoding have to take place
respectively, so as to recover the information from
the signal.
After Deinterleaving the signal will be decoded
which is the reverse process of the Convolutional
coding, using Viterbi decoders.
The decoder can recover lost or corrupted data up
to 4 successive bits, because the memory depth of
the CC is 4(for k=5).

Channelization
Frequency band has several application
segments
Certain blocks of the Band are reserved for
certain applications by regulating authorities
Technologies have decided their frequency
bands
E.g. AMPS/DAMPS: 824-894 MHz

Channelization methods
Channelization can be done primarily by
three methods:
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Power

FDMA
Time

Frequency
E.g. AMPS band is divided into 30 KHz
channels (1666 Freq. channels)
Television Channels (Star, Zee, Sony,..)

Power

TDMA
Time

Frequency
E.g. AMPS has 3 timeslots on each 30
KHz channel

CDMA
Frequency channel is divided into code
channels
E.g. in IS-95 CDMA, 1.228 MHz channel is
divided into 64 Code Channels
Each user has a particular code
Codes are orthogonal to each other, do not
interfere with each other

Duplex Access Methods

Amplitude

Time

Tx

F1

Rx

F2

Frequency

Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)

Transmit on one frequency and receive on
another frequency

AmplitudeTime

Division Duplex

Time

Rx
Tx
F1

Frequency

Time division duplex

Tx and Rx is on the same frequency but on
different times

GSM Air Interface

Separate Bands for Uplink and Downlink
Downlink: 935-960Mhz (EGSM: 925-960MHz)
Uplink: 890-915 MHz (EGSM: 880-915 MHz)

TDMA and TDMA Multiplex

124 Frequency Channels (ARFCN) for GSM900
1 to 124 fro current band
975 to 1023 for E-GSM
200kHz Channels
8 Mobiles share ARFCN by TDMA

GSM Air interface (1800)

1800: Downlink: 1805-1880 MHz
1800: Uplink: 1710-1785 MHx

374 ARFCNs
Separation of 95 MHz
ARFCNs are numbered from 512 to 885
inclusive

The GSM Burst

Control
Bit

Tail Bits

57
Data

Control
Bit

26
Midamble

Tail Bits

57
Data

3 8.25
Guard
Period

Speech Coder
20 ms blocks

RPE/LTP coder (Regular

Pulse excitation/Long
Speech Coder term Prediction)
Converts 64 kbps speech
to 13 kbps
Bits Ordered At the end we get 13kbps
speech i.e. 260 bits in 20
ms

50 very
important
bits

132
important
bits

78 other
bits

Error Correction
Type 1a 50 3(CRC) Type 1b 132 Type II 78
Reordering

Type 1b
Tail
Type 1b
25
66
3 66
25 4
Type 1a
Type 1a

Type II 78

Half rate convolutional code

378
456 bits from 20 ms of speech

Type II 78

Diagonal Interleaving
456 bits from 20ms of speech

456 bits from 20ms of speech

57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57

57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57

57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57
Traffic channel (TCH) bursts carry two 57 bit
blocks (114)
Each 120 ms of speech = 456*6 = 2736 bits
2736/114 = 24 bursts i.3. 24 frames
Multiframe has 26 frames in 120ms.
There are 2 spare frames .. 1 SACCH, 1 Idle

Convolutional Coding and

Interleaving

Bits to be Tx ed: HELLO

Convolutionally encoded: HHEELLLLOO
Interleaved: EE HH LL LL OO

Bits Rx ed: EE HH LL LL OO
De-Interleaved: HHEELLLLOO
Viterbi Decoded: HELLO

Speech Coding Process

456 bits
20 ms
Speech Coder
260 bits 13 kbps

Transceiver (BTS)
13 kbps

260 bits

Transcoder Handler

50 1a

132 1b

78 II

Channel Coder
456 bits

22.8 kbps

16 kbps
260 + 60 = 320 bits
TRAU frame
Abis

TRAU frame
260 bits info + 60 TRAU bits = 320
bits/20ms = TRAU frame
60 bits contain frame Information data which
indicates speech, data, O&M, full rate/half
rate
60 bits = 35 synchronization + 21 control + 4
timing

Midamble or Training Bits

Control Bit
Control Bit

Tail Bits

Tail Bits

57
Data

26
Midamble

57
Data

8.25
Guard
Period

8 midamble patterns (Colour codes) of 26 bits (BSIC)

RACH and SCH have longer 41 and 64 bit Midambles
Equalizer estimates channel impulse response from
midamble
Mathematically construct inverse filter
Uses inverse to decode bits

Downlink and Uplink

Uplink lags downlink by 3 timeslots
Uplink and downlink use same timeslot
number
Uplink and downlink use same channel
number (ARFCN)
Uplink and downlink use different bands
(45 MHz apart for GSM 900)

Measurements made by MS and

BTS
Uplink RXLEV (-48 to -110 dbm)
Uplink RXQUAL (0-7)
Uplink RXLEV (-48 to -110 dbm)
Uplink RXQUAL (0-7)

0
3
5
7

RxQual
< 0.2%
0.4 0.8 %
1.6 3.2 %
6.4 12.8 %

1
4
6

0.2 0.4 %
0.8 0.16 %
3.2 6.4 %

Mobile Power Control

Path Loss
Power Command

Mobile is commanded to change its

Transmit Power
Change in Power is proportionate to the
Path Loss
Change in Power is done in steps of 2 dbs

Timing Advance
TDMA approach requires signals to arrive at
BTS at the correct time
A mobile at 30 km will be late by 100micro
seconds
Timing advance is in the range of 0-62
One unit is 550m
So maximum cell size is 63*0.55 = ~35 kms

Concepts of Channels in GSM

A company vehicle is used for several purposes
in a day
Similarly in GSM, the timeslots are used for
different purposes at different times

Frames and Multiframes

Control Channel
Multiframe

Traffic Channel
Multiframe

50

4.615 ms

Frame
Time
Slot

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 Data 1 Midamble 1 Data 3 8.25 bits
156.25 bits

576.92 micro sec

25

GSM Operations
Location Update
Mobile Originated
Call
Mobile Terminated
Call
Handover
Security Procedures
Cell Barring

DTX
Cell Broadcast
Short Message
Service
Emergency calls
Supplementary
Services
Roaming

Mobile Turn On
Mobile Searches for Broadcast
Channels (BCH)
Synchronizes Frequency and Timing
Decodes BCH sub-channels (BCCH)
Checks if Network Allowed by SIM
Location Update
Authentication

Location Area
BTS
BTS
BTS

Location
LocationArea
Area11

BSC

BTS
BTS

Location
Location
Area
Area22

BSC

BTS
BTS
BTS

BSC

MSC

Location Area Identity

MCC

MNC

LAC

Location area is the area covered by one or

more BTSs where a mobile can move freely
without updating the system
One Location area can be covered by one or
more BSCs, but ony one MSC.

Importance of Location Area

Reduce Paging load
Resource Planning
Smaller Location Areas Location update
increases
Larger Location Areas Paging load
increases

What is Location Update?

MSC should know the location of the
Mobile for paging
Mobile is continuously changing
location area
Mobile when changes Location Area
informs the MSC about its new LA
Process of informing MSC about new
Location area is Location Update

Types of Location Updates

1. Normal Location
Update
2. IMSI Attach
3. Periodic Location
Update
Hi,
I am in Location area
xxx

IMSI Attach
Mobile turns off and sends an IMSI Detach
to MSC
Mobile turns on again and compares LAI
If same, sends an IMSI attach to MSC

Is the received
LAI same as
before

If s a m e ,
Sends
I MS I
attach

Normal Location Update

Mobile Turns on Power

Reads the new LAI
If different, does a Location Update

Is the received
LAI same as
before

If differe
n t,
does
Location
Update

Periodic Location Update

The periodic location Update time is set
from OMC/MSC
After the periodic location update timer
expires, the mobile has to do a location
update

What happens at Location

Update?
Mobile changes location area
Reads the new Location Area from
BCCH
Sends a RACH (request for channel)
Gets a SDCCH after AGCH
Sends its IMSI and new and old LAI in
a Location Update request to MSC on
SDCCH

What happens at location update

cont..
.. . .
MSC starts Authentication
If successful, Updates the new Location
area for the Mobile in the VLR
Sends a confirmation to the Mobile
Mobile leaves SDCCH, and comes to idle
mode

Mobile Originated Call

Channel Request
Immediate Assign
Service Request
Authentication
Ciphering
Set Up
Call Proceeding
Assignment
Alerting
Connection

Mobile Terminated Call

Paging
Channel Request
Immediate Assign
Paging Response
Authentication
Ciphering
Set Up
Call Confirmed
Assignment
Alerting
Connection

Security Features
Authentication
Process to verify Authenticity of SIM
Mobile is asked to perform an operation
using identity unique to SIM
Ciphering
Process of coding speech for secrecy
The speech bits are EXORed with bit
stream unique to MS

Security Features (TMSI

Reallocation)
Location Update
TMSI Allocation
Call Setup
TMSI Reallocation
GSM
Infrastructure

Mobile

TMSI- Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity

Security Features
(Identity Check)
Identity Check
Sends IMEI
EIR
White listed /Grey Listed/ Black
Listed mobiles

Handover

Cell 1

Cell 2

Handover is a GSM feature by which the

control/communication of a Mobile is transferred
from one cell to another if certain criterias are
met. It is a network initiated process.

Criteria for Handover

Receive Quality (RXQUAL) on uplink and
downlink
Receive Signal Strength (RXLEV) on uplink
and downlink
Distance (Timing Advance)
Interference Level
Power Budget

Handover Decision
BSC process the measurements reported by
Mobile and the BTS

BTS

BTS
BTS

BTS

BTS
BTS

Mobile has measurements of six neighbors

Handover Decision (cont..)

BSS performs averaging function on these
measurements every SACCH frame
(480ms)
Handover Decision algorithm is activated
after a set number of SACCH frame
periods by comparison against thresholds

Types of Handovers
INTRA-CELL HANDOVERS
INTER-CELL HANDOVERS
INTRA-BSC HANDOVERS
INTER-BSC HANDOVERS
INTER-MSC HANDOVERS

INTRA-CELL HANDOVER
C1
C0

Handover between timeslots of same frequency

Handover between different frequencies of the same cell
(to reduce interference)
MSC is not aware about this

Inter-cell Handover

Cell 1

BTS

Cell 2

Handover between cells of the same BTS

Inter-cell Handover (cont..)

MSC is told about HO

BTS -> BSC -> MSC
Why MSC is informed?
In case of change of LA, MSC may need LAC
for paging. As MS is busy, a link already
exists. So, MSC can send a tone in case of
call waiting, and does not need to page again.
This is needed also for billing and call tracing

INTRA-BSC Handover
BTS
MSC

BSC
BTS

This HO takes place if the cell to which handover

is to be done belongs to the same BSC

Inter BSC Handover

BSC

BTS

BSC

BTS

MSC

The MSC is completely involved in this Handover

Inter MSC Handover

MSC

BSC

BTS

MSC

BSC

BTS

GMSC/
PSTN/
Backbone

In this case the handover takes place through the

interconnecting element which can be GMSC or
PSTN or private Backbone between the MSCs

Cell Barring
BTS
Cell Barring is a GSM feature by which certain
mobiles could be barred access to certain cells
Cell barring is activated/deactivated at BTS level
Cell barring is done for mobile categories and
priorities

Cell Barring
Every mobile has an access class
The access class is stored in the SIM
Classes 0-9 are termed normal calsses
Classes 11-15 are emergency classes

Every cell has a set parameter which

defines which access classes are barred
for the particular cell. This parameter is
broadcasted on the BCCH

What is DTX?
DTX (Discontinous Transmission)
Each direction of Transmission is only
50%
Transmitter is switched ON for useful
information frames
Need for DTX
To increase battery life
To reduce the average interference level
DTX is done by DTX handlers which have
the following functions.

VAD (Voice Activity Detector)

Senses for speech in 20ms blocks
Removes stationary noise
VAD is an energy detector
Compares Energy of filtered speech
threshold
It determines which 20ms blocks contain
speech and it only forwards those frames

Evaluation of Background Noise

Background noise is always present with
speech
DTX cuts off this noise with speech
Gives an uncomfortable feeling to the
listener
VAD takes care of this by inserting comfort
noise at the receiving end when speech
discontinues.

Emergency Calls
GSM specs define 112 as an emergency
number
112 is accessible with or without SIM
Without SIM it is sent on the best channel
Mobile on sensing 112 sets the
establishment cause to emergency call in
the RACH
Routing of this call be done to a desired
location defined in the switch

Cell (Re)selection
Cell reselection is done using C1 path loss
criterion.
The purpose is to ensure that the MS is
camped on to the cell with the best
transmission quality.
The MS will camp on to the cell with the
highest C1 value if C1 > 0.

The following parameters

calculate the C1 criterion

are

used

to

The received signal at the MS side.

Rxlev_access_min - broadcast on the
BCCH - The minimum received level at the
MS required for access to the network.
Ms_txpwr_max_cch - the maximum power
that an MS may use when initially accessing
the network.
The maximum power of the MS

C1 = A - Max(B,0)
A = Received level Average Rxlev_access_min.
B = MS_txpwr_max_cch - maximum output
power of the MS

Cell Reselect Hysteresis

Cell reselection on the border of two location areas result in
a location update. When an MS moves on the border of
two location areas lots of location updates take place. To
avoid these location updates, the reselect hysteresis is
introduced.
A location update is performed only if:
The C1 value of the new location area is higher than the
C1 value in the current location area and
The received signal strengths have at least a difference
of the reselect hysteresis.

Cellular concept

Why to use the cellular

concept ?
Solves the problem of Spectral congestion
and user capacity by means of frequency
reuse.
Offers high capacity in a limited spectrum
allocation.
Offers system level approach, using low
power transmitters instead of a single, high
power transmitter (large cell) to cover larger
area.

 A portion of the total channels available

is allocated to each base station.
Neighboring base stations are assigned
different groups channels, in order to
minimize interference.

Cell shape

1-Omni-directional cell-site (Omnidirectional antenna).

2-Rhombus-shaped sectors (Directive
antenna).
3-Hexagonal shaped sectors (Directive
antenna).

Cell size
Large cell : (up to 70km in diameter)
It exists where :
1-Radio waves are unobstructed.
2-Transmission power can cover the area.
3-low subscriber density.

Small cell : (up to 2km in diameter)

It exists where :
1-Radio waves are obstructed.
2-Low transmission power to decrease interference.
3-High subscriber density.

Types of cells
1-Macro-cells
3-Pico-cells.

2-Micro-cells.
4-Umbrella-cells.

What is a cluster ?
A cluster is a group
of cells.
No channels are
reused within a
cluster.
It is the unit of
design.

Cluster size
Definition : It is The number of cells per
cluster

N = i^2 + ij + j^2
Where :
i = 0, 1, 2.& j = 0,1,2. etc.
N = 1 , 3 , 4 ,7, 9 , 12 ,

Types of clusters
1-N=7 omni frequency plan (2directional).
2-N=7 trapezoidal frequency plan
(1-directional).
3-N=9 omni frequency plan.
4-Tricellular plans
a) N=3 tricellular plan (3/9).
b) N=4 tricellular plan (4/12).

Channel assignment
strategies
Considerations :
1) Max. capacity.
2) Min interference.
3) Perfect handover.

Types of assignment strategies :

1) Fixed :
Each cell has permanent predetermined set of voice
channels.
New calls served by unused channels of this cell.
Borrowing strategy if all channels are occupied.
High probabiltity that call is Blocked if channels are
occupied.( disadv.)

2) Dynamic :
Channels are not allocated to different cells
permanently.
Each new call BTS requests new channel
from MSC.
MSC allocate a channel, by using an
algorithm that takes into account:
1- Frequency is not already in use.
2- Min. reuse distance to avoid co-channel
interference.

 Adv. of dynamic assignment strategy

:
1) Increase channel utilization
( Increase trunking efficiency ).
2) Decrease probability of a blocked call.

Frequency reuse
Concept

Reuse cluster

Co-channel Reuse ratio

(Q) :
R : cell radius.
D : reuse distance.

Q = D/R. =
sqrt(3N).
Where :
N : cluster size

Handover

Definition : procedure that allows MS to

change the cell or time-slot to keep as
good link as possible during all the call.

Types of handover
IntraCell : bet. 2 channels of same cell.
InterCell : bet. 2 channels of 2 different cell &
same BTS.
InterBTS (intra BSC) : 2 cells of different BTS
Same BSC.
InterBSC : bet. 2 cells of different BSCs & same
MSC.

Measurements before
handover
1- Measurements from MS to BSC :
a) Strength of BTS signal.
b) Quality of BTS signal.
c) Signal strength of 6 neighbor BTSs.
2-Measurements from BTS to BSC :
a) Strength of MS signal.
b) Quality of MS signal.
c) Distance between serving BTS & MS.

Different causes of
Different causes of handover
Handover
Emergency HO

Level

Quality

Distance

Better cell HO

PBGT
Interference

Traffic causes

Basic handover algorithms

a)Min. acceptable performance
algorithm:
MS power is increased when quality
deceases till handover is the only way.
b) Power budget algorithm:
Prefer direct handover when quality
deceases without increasing MS power
first .

Handover priority
1) UL quality cause (or interference).
2) DL quality cause (or interference).
3) UL level cause.
4) DL level cause.
5) Distance cause.
6) Better cell cause.

Interference

Sources of interference
include:
1) Another mobile in the same cell.
2) A call in progress in the neighboring
cell.
3) Other BTSs operating in the same
frequency band.

Interference effects :
In voice channel causes crosstalk
In control channels it leads missed and
blocked calls due to errors in the digital
signaling.

Main types of
interference :
1) Co-channel interference.
2) Adjacent channel interference.

1) Co-channel interference
Source : Near cell using same frequency.
It is a function of reuse distance(D/R).
General rule :

io = No. of co-channel interfering cells.

S = Signal power from a desired BS.
Ii = interference power caused by the ith
interfering co-channel cell BS.

 Another form :
C/I = 10 log {(1/n)(D/R)*m}
Where :
m = propagation constant
(deps on nature of
environment)
n = number of co-channel interferers.

Can be minimized by :
Choosing minimum reuse distance
= (2.5.3)(2R).

2) Adjacent channel
interference

Source : A cell using a frequency adjacent

to the one in another cell due to imperfect
recievers filter.

 General rule : ACI= -10 Log[(d1/d2)*m]

Adj ch isolation.
Where :
d1: distance between MS & proper BTs
d2: dist. Bet MS & adj BTS causing
interference.
Adj ch isolation = Filter isolation =
- 26db.
Can be minimized by :

1-careful filtering
2-careful channel assignments
3-Directional antenna.

Traffic engineering
theory

Why do we need to
know traffic?
The amount of traffic during peak hours
allows us to dimension our wireless system
for a certain GOS.

GOS : probability of having a call blocked

during busy hour (block rate).

Traffic intensity (E)

Erlang : A unit of traffic intensity measure.
1 Erlang = 1 circuit in use for 1 hour.
T ( in Erlangs) = [No. of calls per
hour*average call holding time(sec.)] /
[3600]

Typical traffic profile

Traffic tables
Erlang B
Table

Blocked calls are not held

Erlang C
Table

Blocked calls are held in

the queue indefinitely

Poisson
Table

Blocked calls are held in

the queue for a time = the
mean holding time of a call

Erlang B table
P(N;T) = [ (T^N)*exp(-T) ] / N!
N

GOS 1%

GOS 2%

2
4
10
20
40

0.153
0.869
4.46
12.0
29.0

0.223
1.093
5.084
13.182
30.997

Trunking
Sharing channel among several users.
Trunking efficiency (nT) : Measures the
number of subscribers that each channel in
every cell can accommodate.

nT = (traffic in Erlangs / no. of channels)*100.

 Trunking
efficiency in
presence of one
operator :
N = 7 , 312 one direction
voice channels
No. of channels / cell =
312 / 7 = 44 ch./cell.
From Erlang-B table
@GOS 2%,thiss
equivalent to 35 Erlangs
nT = 35 / 44 = 79.55.

Trunking
efficiency in
presence of two
operators :
N = 7 , 312 / 2 = 156 one
direction voice channel
for each operator.
No. of channels / cell =
156 / 7 = 22 ch./cell.
From Erlang-B table
@GOS 2%,thiss
equivalent to 15 Erlangs.
nT = 15 / 22 = 68.18.

System capacity

 S : total duplex channels available for use = k*N

Where:
N : cluster size.
k : No. of channels / cell.

C : total No. of duplex channels in system;

C = M*k*N.
Where :
M : No. of times the cluster is repeated.

Improving system
capacity
Cell splitting.
Sectoring.

Cell splitting

Sectoring
We use directional antennas instead of
being omnidirectional

What does sectoring

mean?
We can now assign frequency sets to
sectors and decrease the re-use distance
to fulfill :
1) More freq reuse.
2) Higher system capacity.
3) Improve S/I ratio ( better signal quality ).

How S/I ratio is improved?

-e.g. In 120 degree sectoring theres only
2 interferers instead of 6 incase of omnidirectional
N=7 cluster.

Directional frequency reuse

Here we use 7/21
pattern for
frequency
allocation.

Comparison between
various types of
clusters

N = 7 omni frequency
plan :
n = 6 , m = 4.
D / R = 4.583.
1) Co-channel
interference ratio :
C / I = 18.6 dB.
2) Adjacent channel
interference :
ACI = -26 dB @ d1= d2.

N = 7 trapezoidal
frequency plan
n = 2 , m = 4.
D / R = 6.245.
1) Co-channel interference
ratio :
C / I = 28.8.
2) Adjacent channel
interference : disappears
because the channels are
assigned alternatively to the
cells.

 Trunking efficiency :
312 one direction voice channels
N=7
312 / 7 = 44.57 ~ 44 ch./cell.
From Erlang-B table @ GOS = 2%
T = 35 E.
nT = 35 / 44 = 79.55 %.

N = 9 omni frequency plan

n = 4 , m = 4.
D / R = sqrt ( 3 * 9 ) = 5.2.
1) Co-channel interference :
C / I = 22.6 dB.
2) Adjacent channel
interference :
ACI = -38 dB @ d2 = 2
(d1).

 Trunking efficiency :
312 one direction voice channels
N=9
312 / 9 = 34.67 ~ 34 ch./cell.
From Erlang-B table @ GOS = 2%
T = 25.529 E.
nT = 25.529 / 34 = 75.085 %.
Conclusion : nT 7 > nT 9
But C/I 7 > C/I 9
ACI 7 > ACI 9

4 / 12 cell pattern
n = 1 , m = 4.
D / R = sqrt (3* 4) =
3.732.
C / I = 22.87 dB.
Trunking efficiency :
No. of channels/cell
= 312 / 12 = 26 ch./cell.
From Erlang-B table @
GOS = 2 %.
T = 18.4 E/cell.
nT = 18.4 / 26= 70.77%.

3 / 9 cell pattern
n = 1 , m = 4.
D / R = sqrt (3* 3) = 3.
C / I = 19.1 dB.
Trunking efficiency :
No. of channels/cell
=312 / 9 = 34 ch./cell.
From Erlang-B table @
GOS = 2 %.
T = 25.5 E/cell.
nT = 25.5 / 24 = 75 %.

120 degree cell sectoring

n = 2 , m = 4.
D / R = sqrt(3 * 7) = 4.583.
Co-channel interference :
C / I = 23.436 + 6dB(due to
isolation) = 29.436 dB.

Trunking efficiency :
No. of channels/cell = 312 / 21 =
14.857.
From Erlang-B @ GOS=2% T=
8.2003.
nT = 8.2003 / 14.857
=56.216%.

 References :
Motorola CP02
NOKIA SYSTRA