GCE 227

CHAPTER 1
Lecture1:

Fundamental Concept of
Metrology

Preamble:
Measurement is simply defined as the
estimation or determination of extent
dimension or capacity, usually in relation to
source standard or unit. Metrology on the other
hand, is the study of measurement. The
comparison must be to standard as indicated
below.
Standard
Comparision
Mesurand

Process
(Measurement)

(Comparision to a standard)

Result

Fundamental Units Of Measure, SI System

The SI system is the latest form of metric system
and has two supplementary units viz radian (for
solid angle) and steradian (for plane angle) in
addition to seven base units of metre, kg, second,
ampere, kelvin, candela and mole for length,
mass, time, current, thermo dynamic temperature,
luminous intensity and amount of substance
respectively. All other units can be derived from
these quantities. The SI system is a
comprehensive, logical and coherent system
designed for use in all branches of science,
engineering and technology.
The symbols, units and dimension of various
mechanical electrical and magnetic quantities are
given below:
Quantity

Symbol Unit

Dimension

Area
Volume
Frequency
Density
Velocity

A
V
F
D
V

L2
L3
T-1
ML-3
LT-1

M2
M3
Hz
Kg/M3
M/S

Quantity

Symbol Unit

Dimension

Acceleration
Force
Work, energy
Power
Surface tension
Charge
Potential, Difference emf

A
F
W, E
P

M/S2
N(Newton)
J(N-M)
W(J/S)

Q
V, E

C(A-S)
V

ML-3
LT-1
LT-2
MLT-2
ML2T-2
TI
ML2T-3I-1

Electric field strength

Resistance
Capacitance
Inductance
Magnetic flux
Magnetic field strength
Magnetic flux density

E
R
C
L

H
B

V/M
(V/A)
F
H
Wb
A/m
T(Wb/M2)

MLT-3I-1
ML2T-3I-2
M-1L-2T4I2
ML2T-2I-2
ML3T-2I-1
IL-1
ML-2I-1

Quantity

Symbol Unit

Dimension

Magnetic motive
force (MMF)
Reluctance
Permeability
Pole-strength
Electric flux
Electric flux density
Permittivity

A /wb
H/m
Wb
C
C/M2
F/m

M-1L-2T2I2
MLT-2I-2
ML2T-2I-1
TL
L-2TI
M-1L-3T4I2

Note: That the dimension for the electrical

current quantity is (I).

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The device used for comparing the unknown
quality with the unit of measurement or a
standard quality is called the measuring
instrument. Measurement generally involves
the use of an instrument as a means of
determining a quantity or a variable. The
instrument assists a person to determine the
value of an unknown quantity which could
not otherwise be measured by this human
facilities alone. The value of unknown
quantity can be determined by direct method
such as measurement
of current by
ammeter, or by indirect method such as
determination of resistance by ammeter
voltmeter
method.
Direct
measuring
instruments are most widely used in
engineering practice since they are the most
simple and inexpensive ones and enable the
measurements to be made in the shortest
possible time.

Measurement work employs the following terms:

i. Instrument: A device for determining the
value or magnitude of a variable or quantity.
ii. Input signal: A signal applied to a device,
element or system such as pressure applied
to the input connection of a pressure
transmitter.
iii. Output signal: A signal delivered or
generated by a device, element or system.
iv. Accuracy: The degree of conformity or
closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the variable or
quantity being measured.
V. Precision: A measure of the reproducibility of
the measurement; that is given a value of a
variable, precision means the degree to
which successive measurements of the same
value differ from one another.
Vi. Sensitivity: The ratio of the output signal or
response of the instrument to a change of the
input or measured value.
ViiResolution: The smallest change in measured

1.1 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

In practical measurement of quantities, it is not
possible to obtain exact or perfect values. No
measurement may be made with perfect accuracy,
the imperfections of a measurement are due to
errors arising in course of practical measurements.
Error may come from different sources and are
usually classified under three main headings:-

(a) Gross error: These are largely human errors and

include; misreading of instruments, incorrect
adjustments (parallax) and improper application of
instruments and mistakes in computation.
(b) Systematic Errors: These are errors due to short
comings of the instrument. Some systematic errors
are:

i. Constructions Errors.
This is found in an instrument as indicated by
the manufacturers. The maximum tolerances
within which quantities measured by the
instrument, should be as indicated e.g. I 1%.
ii. Effect of the environment on the instrument
(Ambient condition error) e.g. temperature,
attitudes, pressure e.t.c.
iii. Error inherent in method used
Example
I

IR

IA

~
A

(r)

V=IRR = IAr
= I Rr
Rtr
IA=

R
Rtr

and

r
Rtr

I R=

Let I = 5A, R=100R, r=1R

IA=
IR =

100
100+1

5 = 4.95A

1
100+1

5 = 0.05A

Relative error =

0.05
5

x100 =1%

Now, let I=5A, R=100 , r=10

IA=
IR =

100
100+10

10
100+10

5 =4.545A
5 =0.45A
0.45

Relative error =

=9.0%

iv. Error due to ageing and wear of equipment.

Example: consider the measurement of a
resistance by the voltmeter/ammeter method; the
voltmeter indicates 120volts and the ammeter
indicates 2.2A
(120 volts; range:0-200v)
(2.2A;

range:0-5A)

Each instrument has an error not exceeding 1%

maximum. Determine the limit in which the
resistance must be:
Soln:
Apparent Resistance, Rapp=

V
I

120
=
2.2

54.5%

Maximum voltage; Vmax = 120+1%

= 120+2=122v
Minimum Voltage; Vmin=120-1%
=120-2=118V
Maximum current
Imax =2.2 + 1% = 2.2+0.05 = 2.25A
Minimum current, Imin = 2.2-1%
Vmax
Rmax = Imin
Vmax
Rmin = Imax

122
= 2.15
118
= 2.25

= 2.2-0.06 = 2.15A
= 56.74
= 52.44

Alternatively a rough guide to the limit can be

calculated as follows:

Add up the errors in voltmeter/ammeter

1%+1% = 2%
True resistance = Rapp + 2%
= 54.545 + 2%
Rmax = 54.5m + 2.44=56.9452
Rmin = 54.5 2.44 = 52.0652
Thus, the more instruments involved in a
measurement the greater the uncertainty
involved in the value of the measured quantity.
In general the determinant of a quantity may be
assumed to be represented mathematically as a
product or a sum of the number of quantities.
Which are illustrate by the following:
1. Let us look at the sum of 2 or more
components, let the measured results be u, v, w
and corresponding errors be + u + v + w, and
the result Y .
i.e. Y = u+v+w (1) this is apparent result.
Max. value of Y becomes
Y+y = u+u+v+v+w+w (2)

Min. value of Y,
Y- y= u-u+v-v+w-w (3)
Substract u+v+w from equations (2) and (3)
The error in Y is + y = + (u+v+w) or y = +
(u+v+w) x 100%
Y

Which is equal to
(y)

=+

(v)
V

(w) (w)
Y

% - (4)

2. As the product of two or more factors.

let Y =uv
Then Y+y = (u+u) (v+v)
= uv + uv + vu + uv
The term vv can be neglected
Y+ y =(u+ u) (v+ v)
=uv+uv+vu+uv
The term v v can be neglected
Y+ y=uv+uv+v u
(y)
Y

uv
uv

vu
U

Or y = u + v
y

the relative error add up.

(5)

(3) As the quotient of two factors

let y=u/v
Y+y= u+u
v+v
For max. errors;
U+u
V-v
u+u
V-v

Y+y =
Y+y =
Y+ y=

Uv+uv+vu+uv
V2-vv+vv-vv

=
Y+y-y =
y =
y =
Y

u
V

v+v
V-v

uv+uv+vu
V2
uv
uv

V2

uv
V

V2
v
V

+
-

vu
V
u

uv

V
V

V2

u
V

(w)
W

y = v + u
Y

y= u + u
U

- (6)

Again, the Relative errors add up. Therefore

for products or quotients, the max. error is
(a+b+c+d+..)% where a, b, c, d, ..are
relative% systematic errors.
(c) Random Error: These are errors due to
causes which cannot be directly established
because of random variations in the
parameter or the system of measurements.
That is external influences beyond the control
of the operator may have effects on the
measurements. Such quantities may be
vibration, change in humidity and pressure,
electrical and acoustic noise. These quantities
are related to the measurement and they give
rise to errors which are random in nature.
While they cannot be eliminated, these
effects can be reduced statistically by taking a
large number of readings and finding the
mean value. The deviation of reading about
the mean value gives a measure of the
amount of random error involves in the

measurement, ideally this should be very

small. One precise method of evaluating the
randomness of a set of observations is to
calculate the standard deviation of the data.
i.e
1
=

(Xi X)2

i = 1

Where x = mean value

xi = individual value
N = no of values.

Home work
1.

If x = a + b + c
and

a = 5000 + 0.1%
b = 600 + 0.5%
c = 40 + 1.0%

Find the maximum error in X

2. If y = uv + wz
x
Evaluate the maximum error dy
y
The following
measurement:

readings

are

obtained

in

X; 5.30, 5.73, 6.77, 5.75, 6.09, 4.33, 5.25, 5.45,

5.64, 5.81
Compute the mean reading and the standard
deviation.
1.2

ESSENTIAL OF INDICATING
INSTRUMENTS

Indicating instruments consist, essentially of a

pointer moving over a calibrated scale and
attached to moving system, pivoted on jeweled
bearings. For satisfactory working of indicating
instruments the torques required are:
i. Deflecting torque: The deflecting torque is
produced by making use of the fact that when an

electric current flow along a conductor, the

conductor becomes surrounded by a magnetic
field causing the moving system of the
instrument to move form its zero position when
the instrument is connected in an electric
circuit to measure the electrical quantity. This
property is used in electromechanical
instruments to obtain the deflection of a
pointer:
(a)By the interaction of the magnetic field around
a coil with a permanent magnet;
(b)Between ferromagnetic values in the coils
magnetic field; or
(c)Through the interaction of the magnetic fields
produced by a number of coils.
constraining these forces to form a turning
movement produces a deflecting torque = GF
(i) Newton metre (NM), which is function of the
current in the instruments coil and the
geometry and type of coil system. To obtain a
stable display. It is necessary to equate the
deflection tongue with an opposing called the
control torque.

ii. Controlling torque: This magnitude of the

movement of the moving system would be
somewhat indefinite under the influence of
deflecting torque unless some controlling
torque existed. The magnitude (C) of this
control torque must increase with the angular
deflection of the pointer and this is arranged
by using a control devices. There are two
types of controlling devices, these are given
below:
(a)Spring Control In the spring control system,
two spiral springs A and B are arranged as
shown in figure 1.1

The inner ends of the hair springs are attached to

the spindle P. The outer end of hair spring one
end of a lever L pivoted at O. the hair springs A
and B are also wound in opposite direction as
shown, so that when the moving system is
deflected, one springs unwinds while the other is
winding up so that the controlling tongue is the
result of the combination of the torsions of both
springs. Since the tensional torque is controlling
torque is directly proportional to the angular
deflection of the pointer i.e. control torque = C
(b) Gravity Control: In gravity control
instruments, a small weight is attached to the
moving system in such a way that it produces a
controlling torque, when the moving system is in
deflected position. The controlling torque can be
varied quite easily by adjusting the position of the
controlling weight upon the arm. Gravity control is
cheap, unaffected by change in temperature and
in free form fatigue or deterioration with time but
the instrument has to be kept in vertical position
always.
iii. Damping Torque: damping force or torque is
also necessary to avoid oscillations of the moving
system about its final deflected position owing to

The inertia of the moving parts and to bring the

moving system to rest in its deflected position
quickly. The moving parts of the instruments will
have a moment of inertia (J) and when a
change in magnitude of deflection takes place
an acceleration torque (Jd2 / dt2 Nm) will be
present. Since the movable parts are attached
to a control spring they combine to form a mass
spring system and in order to prevent
excessive oscillations when the magnitude of
the electrical input is changed a damping torque
(D d /dt Nm) must be provided that will only
act it the moving parts are in motion. It is
therefore desirable to provide an adequate
damping system that enables the pointer to
reach its steady position without oscillation, as
shown by curve a in fig 1.2

The method by which this damping torque can

be obtained may be
(a)Eddy current where currents induces in a
conducting sheet attached to the movement
produce a magnetic field opposing any
charge in position.
(b) Pneumatic (air / fluid friction Damping) In
this method an aluminium vane is an
extension of this principle, a small vane then
being constrained to move in a container
filled with a suitably viscous fluid
(c)Electromagnetic movement of a coil is a
magnetic field produces a current in the coil
which opposes the deflecting current and
slows the response of the instrument. The
magnitude of the opposing current will be
dependent on the resistance of the circuit to
which the connected.
J d + Dd+ C = Gf (ii) (8)
dt2

dt

The above equation will have a steady state

solution when
C - Gf (i) eqn (9)

And a dynamic or transient solution of the form

= Ae>1 + Be>1 - eqn (10)
Where A and B are arbitrary constants and
X1 =

-D
2J

And X2 =

D2
4J2
-D
2J

-C
J
D2
4J2

- eqn (ii)

-C
J

- eqn (12)

For a particular instrument C and J are fixed in

magnitude driving manufacture.
But D (the amount of damping) may be varied.
This results in three possible modes of
response to a transient as shown in figure 1.2