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European Scientific Journal March 2014 edition vol.10, No.9 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857- 7431

MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS: CHARACTERISTICS

AND MODELS

Abdu Idris Omer

Taleb M.M., PhD
Majmaah University, Kingdom of Saudia Arabia

Abstract
In this paper, the major static characteristic parameters for sensors
and instruments are defined and explained. Also, the process of calibration
and subsequent characterization of errors are illustrated. Moreover, we
describe the response and models of first and second order instrument to step
and sinusoidal inputs.

Keywords: Static characteristic , sensors, first order, second order

1. Introduction
All measurement systems can be thought of being made of one or
more of these blocks of Figure1. At the input we have the input element to be
measured, temperature, displacement, .etc. that affecting the sensing element.
Actually, sensing element is the process of continuous energy conversion
from one form depending on what we want to measure, e.g, from mechanical
form, optical form to finally electrical form, and then the electrical form get
finally transform further to digital form before the output. The signal at the
sensing element is in the form of voltage and current. The real pressure or
real temperature which it exist at the sensing element, then the sensing
element brings it generally to some sort of electrical form or electrical
parameters like resistors, capacitor changes or in the form of voltage and
current which have be further manipulated by electrical circuit called signal
conditioning element.(sometimes amplifier or conversion from resistor to
voltage). Then further signal processing goes on to remove noise and make it
linear or something like that. Some of it can be analog and some of it can be
digital. Finally, it goes to the data presentation element where data is utilized
so it can be recorded, or can be displayed or can be controlled.

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Figure 1: General structure of measurement system

Here is the weight measurement system as an example. The input is

the true weight which is sensed by a mechanical member that called load
cell. The load cell converts the input (weight) to the strain that sensed by
another member called strain gauge. The latter converts it to a resistance
form then we feed it to the electrical circuit called wheat-stone. The wheat-
stone converts the resistance to a low voltage level. The low voltage goes to
the amplifier. Finally, the amplified signal passes to the digital signal
processing and from there to a microcontroller where some digital processing
is done. Finally, the data may be displayed along with a unit. Here is how
real measurement system looks like. It is basically cascaded of several blocks
including the sensor, signal conditioning, plus some computer elements.
Sensing is actually extremely important in automation from various
points of view:
a. Product quality control, because quality control is actually
accessed by a sensor element.
b. Manufacturing process control. All the process control are closed
feedback control. So the critical element is the feedback element.
The performance of the control system is critical to the sensor.

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Figure 2: Weight measurement system

c. Process monitoring and supervision.

All these can be done plus providing energy efficient, obtaining set-point, for
all these we need sensors.
d. Manufacturing automation, this how the manufacturing automation
systems can be put together using programmable logic controllers. Then you
find that they use various kinds of sensors. So sensors are extremely
important in automation. They will give a value or information about
physical quantity we need to know how to characterize the behavior of this
device called a sensor in instrument, we need to understand instrument
characteristics.
The performance characteristics may be broadly divided into two
types, namely, 'statistics' and 'dynamic' characteristics. Static characteristics
where the performance criteria for the measurement of quantities that remain
constant. Or vary only quite slowly. Dynamic characteristics on the other
hand, shows the relationship between the system input and output when the
measured quantity is varying rapidly.

1.1-Calibration
The procedure that involves a comparison of the particular instrument
with either a primary standard or a secondary standard with a higher
accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated.
From Figure 3, the measurand 1 is considered to be the true value,
while the measurand 2 is not only from the sensor instrument under
calibration but it can be a result of other factors. It may be a result of

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temperature. For example, in the case of the weight measurement, the strain
gauge,(the resistance change) is not only a function of the weight, it also a
function of temperature. Because every resistance has some temperature
coefficient.
There are some noise can be induced from a power supply or from
some power lines especially in the industry environment, there are plenty of
noise sources. This signal (noise) can affect the measurement. When you
want to characterize the instrument, you have to characterize it to respond
these kinds on inputs.

Figure 3: Calibration of an instrument

Essentially, we try to measure the measurand, the output of the

instrument, and the modifying input like the temperature. Then we establish
the characteristics of the instrument. Since the instrument must happen
constructed to be unaffected by modifying input, so the most important thing
is to see how the instrument characteristics depend on the measurand.
There are different standards of instrument. The instrument can be
calibrated against laboratory standard. The laboratory standard instrument
can also be calibrated from time to time against other standard like the
secondary standard which is special instrument that exists in some testing
houses. So from time to time you should send the instrument to test houses
and get calibrated. On the other hand, the guest house instruments again have
to be calibrated against very accurate national standards. So in this way you
have what can be called change of standards of increasing accuracy and add
different levels you always calibrate according with respected instrument.

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Figure 4: increasing accuracy with different levels of standards

1.2- Span
If in a measurement instrument the highest point of calibration is x2
units and the lowest point is x1 units, then the instrument range is x2 units
and the instrument span is x2-x1.

1.3- Accuracy
One of the most important parameter called accuracy. Usually,
"accuracy is expressed as accurate to within x percent" of reading/span. It
means that true value within ±x percent of instrument reading/span at all
calibration points of the scale. When a temperature transducer with an error
of ±1% of reading indicates 100oC, then the true temperature is between
99oC and 101oC.

1.4- Linearity
The calibration curve of a real instrument is typically not a exactly
straight line. But still is very useful to imagine the system real one. It is very
easily to interpret the true value. If you have an instrument sensitivity
10mV/oC, and if it gives 25mV signal, then you know that the temperature is
2.5 oC. So you can get just by dividing by a number. From that point of view,
it is very attractive to express the characteristics of a linear one, but it is not
line. Therefore, why you mention a line which can be used for inducing the
true value from a reading. For ease of use, it is desirable that the reading of
an instrument is considered Linearly related to the quantity being measured.
The linearity specification indicates the deviation of the Calibration curve
from a good fit straight line of it.

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How do you obtain the straight line? It can be obtained in various

ways: (non-)linear method; this method is defined as the maximum deviation
of an output reading from the good fit straight line and may be expressed as a
percentage of full scale or reading.
The true characteristics of the instrument is indicated by the curve
shown in Figure5. So we can approximate it by the straight line. Therefore,
the true value will be within two limits shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Non-linear method for obtaining a straight line

Actually linearity specification is only linear specification in the

sense that it indicates deviation from linearity.

1.5- Sensitivity
The slope of an static calibration curve evaluated at an input value is
the static sensitivity.

Figure 6: The slope of an static calibration curve

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If you have a calibration curve, then you get a straight line. In case
you have a linear characteristic, then you will have a single sensitivity.
However, if you have a very non-linear one, sometime you do various things.
In the case of three sensitivity figure, one sensitivity figure you apply along
the line A, another sensitivity figure you apply at the region B which is the
average slope of the line , and a third sensitivity figure you apply at the range
of C.

Figure7: Non-linear calibration characteristics curve

1.6- Repeatability or Precision

The repeatability of an instrument is the degree of closeness with
which a measurable quantity may be repeatedly measured. It is defined as the
maximum measure of variation in the measured data for a particular input
value given by standard deviation δ.

1.7- Resolution
The measurement resolution of an instrument defines the smallest
change in measured quantity that causes a detectable change in its output.
For example, in a temperature transducer, if 0.2 oC is the smallest
temperature change that observed, then the measurement resolution is 0.2 oC.

1.8- Dead Zone

Dead zone is the largest value of a measured variable for which the
instrument output stays zero. It occurs due to factors such as static friction in
a mechanical measurement system.

1.9- Hysteresis
Hysteresis error refers to the difference between responses to
increasing and decreasing sequence of inputs. It can occur due to gear
backlash in mechanism, magnetic hysteresis or due to elastic hysteresis.

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Figure 8: hysteresis

1.10- Bias/offset
It is the constant component of error that may be assumed to exist
over the full range.

1.11- Sensitivity/Gain error

It is the component of error which is assumed to be proportional to
the reading.

1.12- Correction
Instruments often provide facilities to correct for these error using
signal conditioning circuitry.

Figure 9: Bias and Gain error

1.13- Drift
The calibration of an instrument is usually performed under
controlled conditions. As variations occur in these conditions and also with
passage of time, the instrument characteristics change. Usually, typical
factors for which drift is characterized are temperature and time.

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2.0- Dynamic Characteristics

Dynamic characteristics refer to the response of an instrument to
continuously changing input. The dynamic response of an instrument to an
input signal is typically modeled in terms of zero, first, or second order linear
differential equations.

2.1- Zero-order instrument

The simplest model for a measurement systems is a zero order
differential equation.
y = kx
Where k is called the static sensitivity.
An instrument can be modeled as a zero order instrument when its
dynamic is very fast compared to the variation in its input signal.

Figure 10: Zero-order circuitry

A potentiometer is the example of a zero order instrument.

θ
eE = kθ
=
θT 0

where k = E/ θT = volts/radian

2.2- First order instrument

Transducer that contains a single storage element can be modeled to
be of first order. Therefore, the dynamic characteristics of a first order
instrument is given by
tý + y = kx
t is called the time constant of the system and it always has the dimension of
time. The mercury in the glass thermometer is an example of a first order
instrument while the thermocouple in thermo-well is an example of a first
order sensor.

2.2.1- First order instrument response to a step input

The response of a first order instrument to a step input is given by

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−t
Y (t ) = KX s [1 − e T ]
T is the time constant.

Figure 11: Response of a first order element to a unit step

2.2.2- First order instrument response to a sinusoidal input

The response of a first order instrument to a sinusoidal input is
explained as shown below.

2.2.3- Frequency response of an element with linear dynamics

Frequency response of an element with linear dynamics is governed
by the equation:
KXs
y= sin(ωt − ϕ ) = A sin(ωt − ϕ )
1 + ω 2τ 2
KXs
Where A = KXs
1 + ω 2τ 2
"A" represents the amplitude of the steady state response and φ is the
phase shift of output response with respect to sinusoidal input.

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Figure 12: Frequency response of an element with linear input

Figure 13: Frequency response characteristics of first order element

Depending on some physical reasons, we can also have second order

instrument.

2.3- Second order instrument

The second order sensor is modeled by a second order differential
equation. Accelerometers, diaphragm pressure transducers, mercury in glass
manometers are few examples of second order system.
The second order instrument dynamic characteristics is given by
y ξ
+2 y + y = Kx .
ω n2
ωn
Let us apply an input signal and see how the output looks like.
Case 1: ξ >1, over damped systems (real unrepeated roots)
The normalized output will be expressed as
y ξ + (ξ 2 − 1) ( −ξ + (ξ 2 −1) ξ − (ξ 2 − 1) ( −ξ − (ξ 2 −1)
KXs
= 1−
2 (ξ 2 − 1)
e ω n 2 (ξ 2 − 1) e
t + ωn t
Case 2: ξ =1, critically damped system (real repeated roots)

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= 1 − (+ ω n t ) e ω n
Y − t

KXs
Case 3: 0< ξ <1, under-damped system (complex conjugate roots)
ωn −ξ t
y
= 1− e sin( (1 − ξ 2 ) ω n t + ϕ )
KXs (1 − ξ )
2

−1
Where ϕ = sin (1 − ξ 2 )

Figure 14: Amplitude versus time responses of a second order element

2.3.1- Second order instrument with a sinusoidal input

The equation is
x = xs sin ωt
y/k sin(ωt + ϕ )
=
xs ω 2 4ξ 2 ω 2
2

[1−( ) ] +
ωn ω
2
n

2ξ
Phase shift ϕ = tan −1 ( )
ω ωn
−
ωn ω

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Figure 15: Phase shift responses of a second order element

3.0- Conclusion
In this article, the fundamental static and dynamic characteristics and
models of zero, first, and second order instrument were discussed supported
with the appropriate figures.

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De Toni, A., Tonchia, S. (1996), “Lean Organization, Management-by-
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Dillon, W. R., Goldstein, M. (1984), Multivariate Analysis - Methods and
Applications, John Wiley & Sons, New York
Speitel, K. F. (1992), “Measurement Assurance”, in Salvendy, G., ed.,
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York

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