Database System Concepts and

Architecture

Outline

Data Models and Their Categories

History of Data Models
Schemas, Instances, and States
Three-Schema Architecture
Data Independence
DBMS Languages and Interfaces
Database System Utilities and Tools
Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
Classification of DBMSs
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Data Models

Data Model:

A set of concepts to describe the structure of a database,

the operations for manipulating these structures, and
certain constraints that the database should obey.

Data Model Structure and Constraints:

Constructs are used to define the database structure

Constructs typically include elements (and their data
types) as well as groups of elements (e.g. entity, record,
table), and relationships among such groups
Constraints specify some restrictions on valid data; these
constraints must be enforced at all times

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Data Models (continued)

Data Model Operations:

These operations are used for specifying database

retrievals and updates by referring to the
constructs of the data model.
Operations on the data model may include basic
model operations (e.g. generic insert, delete,
update) and user-defined operations (e.g.
compute_student_gpa, update_inventory)

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Categories of Data Models

Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:

Provide concepts that are close to the way many users

perceive data.

Physical (low-level, internal) data models:

(Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)

Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored

in the computer. These are usually specified in an ad-hoc
manner through DBMS design and administration manuals

Implementation (representational) data models:

Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by

many commercial DBMS implementations (e.g. relational
data models used in many commercial systems).

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Schemas versus Instances

Database Schema:

Schema Diagram:

The description of a database.

Includes descriptions of the database structure,
data types, and the constraints on the database.
An illustrative display of (most aspects of) a
database schema.

Schema Construct:

A component of the schema or an object within

the schema, e.g., STUDENT, COURSE.
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Schemas versus Instances

Database State:

The actual data stored in a database at a

particular moment in time. This includes the
collection of all the data in the database.
Also called database instance (or occurrence or
snapshot).

The term instance is also applied to individual

database components, e.g. record instance, table
instance, entity instance

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Database Schema
vs. Database State

Database State:

Initial Database State:

Refers to the content of a database at a moment

in time.
Refers to the database state when it is initially
loaded into the system.

Valid State:

A state that satisfies the structure and constraints

of the database.

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Database Schema
vs. Database State (continued)

Distinction

The database schema changes very infrequently.

The database state changes every time the
database is updated.

Schema is also called intension.

State is also called extension.

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Example of a Database Schema

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Example of a database state

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Three-Schema Architecture

Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:

Program-data independence.
Support of multiple views of the data.

Not explicitly used in commercial DBMS products,

but has been useful in explaining database
system organization

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Three-Schema Architecture

Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:

Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical

storage structures and access paths (e.g indexes).

Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the

structure and constraints for the whole database for a
community of users.

Typically uses a physical data model.

Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.

External schemas at the external level to describe the

various user views.

Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual schema.

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The three-schema architecture

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Three-Schema Architecture

Mappings among schema levels are needed to

transform requests and data.

Programs refer to an external schema, and are

mapped by the DBMS to the internal schema for
execution.
Data extracted from the internal DBMS level is
reformatted to match the users external view (e.g.
formatting the results of an SQL query for display
in a Web page)

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Data Independence

Logical Data Independence:

The capacity to change the conceptual schema

without having to change the external schemas
and their associated application programs.

Physical Data Independence:

The capacity to change the internal schema

without having to change the conceptual schema.
For example, the internal schema may be changed
when certain file structures are reorganized or new
indexes are created to improve database
performance
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Data Independence (continued)

When a schema at a lower level is changed, only

the mappings between this schema and higherlevel schemas need to be changed in a DBMS
that fully supports data independence.
The higher-level schemas themselves are
unchanged.

Hence, the application programs need not be

changed since they refer to the external schemas.

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DBMS Languages

Data Definition Language (DDL)

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

High-Level or Non-procedural Languages: These

include the relational language SQL

May be used in a standalone way or may be

embedded in a programming language

Low Level or Procedural Languages:

These must be embedded in a programming

language

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DBMS Languages

Data Definition Language (DDL):

Used by the DBA and database designers to

specify the conceptual schema of a database.
In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define
internal and external schemas (views).
In some DBMSs, separate storage definition
language (SDL) and view definition language
(VDL) are used to define internal and external
schemas.

SDL is typically realized via DBMS commands

provided to the DBA and database designers
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DBMS Languages

Data Manipulation Language (DML):

Used to specify database retrievals and updates

DML commands (data sublanguage) can be
embedded in a general-purpose programming
language (host language), such as COBOL, C, C+
+, or Java.

A library of functions can also be provided to access

the DBMS from a programming language

Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be

applied directly (called a query language).
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Types of DML

High Level or Non-procedural Language:

For example, the SQL relational language

Are set-oriented and specify what data to retrieve
rather than how to retrieve it.
Also called declarative languages.

Low Level or Procedural Language:

Retrieve data one record-at-a-time;

Constructs such as looping are needed to retrieve
multiple records, along with positioning pointers.
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DBMS Interfaces

Stand-alone query language interfaces

Example: Entering SQL queries at the DBMS

interactive SQL interface (e.g. SQL*Plus in
ORACLE)

Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in

programming languages
User-friendly interfaces

Menu-based, forms-based, graphics-based, etc.

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DBMS Programming Language Interfaces

Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in a

programming languages:

Embedded Approach: e.g embedded SQL (for C,

C++, etc.), SQLJ (for Java)
Procedure Call Approach: e.g. JDBC for Java,
ODBC for other programming languages
Database Programming Language Approach:
e.g. ORACLE has PL/SQL, a programming
language based on SQL; language incorporates
SQL and its data types as integral components
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User-Friendly DBMS Interfaces

Menu-based, popular for browsing on the web

Forms-based, designed for nave users
Graphics-based

(Point and Click, Drag and Drop, etc.)

Natural language: requests in written English

Combinations of the above:

For example, both menus and forms used

extensively in Web database interfaces

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Other DBMS Interfaces

Speech as Input and Output

Web Browser as an interface
Parametric interfaces, e.g., bank tellers using
function keys.
Interfaces for the DBA:

Creating user accounts, granting authorizations

Setting system parameters
Changing schemas or access paths

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Database System Utilities

To perform certain functions such as:

Loading data stored in files into a database.

Includes data conversion tools.
Backing up the database periodically on tape.
Reorganizing database file structures.
Report generation utilities.
Performance monitoring utilities.
Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring,
data compression, etc.

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Other Tools

Data dictionary / repository:

Used to store schema descriptions and other

information such as design decisions, application
program descriptions, user information, usage
standards, etc.
Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS
software and users/DBA.
Passive data dictionary is accessed by
users/DBA only.

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Other Tools

Application Development Environments and

CASE (computer-aided software engineering)
tools:
Examples:

PowerBuilder (Sybase)
JBuilder (Borland)
JDeveloper 10G (Oracle)

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Typical DBMS Component Modules

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Centralized and
Client-Server DBMS Architectures

Centralized DBMS:

Combines everything into single system includingDBMS software, hardware, application programs,
and user interface processing software.
User can still connect through a remote terminal
however, all processing is done at centralized site.

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A Physical Centralized Architecture

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Basic 2-tier Client-Server Architectures

Specialized Servers with Specialized functions

Print server
File server
DBMS server
Web server
Email server

Clients can access the specialized servers as

needed

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Logical two-tier client server architecture

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Clients

Provide appropriate interfaces through a client

software module to access and utilize the various
server resources.
Clients may be diskless machines or PCs or
Workstations with disks with only the client
software installed.
Connected to the servers via some form of a
network.

(LAN: local area network, wireless network, etc.)

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DBMS Server

Provides database query and transaction services to the

clients
Relational DBMS servers are often called SQL servers,
query servers, or transaction servers
Applications running on clients utilize an Application
Program Interface (API) to access server databases via
standard interface such as:

ODBC: Open Database Connectivity standard

JDBC: for Java programming access

Client and server must install appropriate client module

and server module software for ODBC or JDBC
See Chapter 9
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Two Tier Client-Server Architecture

A client program may connect to several DBMSs,

sometimes called the data sources.
In general, data sources can be files or other
non-DBMS software that manages data.
Other variations of clients are possible: e.g., in
some object DBMSs, more functionality is
transferred to clients including data dictionary
functions, optimization and recovery across
multiple servers, etc.

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Three Tier Client-Server Architecture

Common for Web applications

Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web
Server:

Stores the web connectivity software and the business logic

part of the application used to access the corresponding
data from the database server
Acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data
between the database server and the client.

Three-tier Architecture Can Enhance Security:

Database server only accessible via middle tier

Clients cannot directly access database server

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Three-tier client-server architecture

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Classification of DBMSs

Based on the data model used

Traditional: Relational, Network, Hierarchical.

Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational.

Other classifications

Single-user (typically used with personal

computers)
vs. multi-user (most DBMSs).
Centralized (uses a single computer with one
database)
vs. distributed (uses multiple computers, multiple
databases)
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Variations of Distributed DBMSs

(DDBMSs)

Homogeneous DDBMS
Heterogeneous DDBMS
Federated or Multidatabase Systems
Distributed Database Systems have now come to
be known as client-server based database
systems because:

They do not support a totally distributed

environment, but rather a set of database servers
supporting a set of clients.

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Cost considerations for DBMSs

Cost Range: from free open-source systems to

configurations costing millions of dollars
Examples of free relational DBMSs: MySQL, PostgreSQL,
others
Commercial DBMS offer additional specialized modules,
e.g. time-series module, spatial data module, document
module, XML module

These offer additional specialized functionality when

purchased separately
Sometimes called cartridges (e.g., in Oracle) or blades

Different licensing options: site license, maximum number

of concurrent users (seat license), single user, etc.
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History of Data Models

Network Model
Hierarchical Model
Relational Model
Object-oriented Data Models
Object-Relational Models

Slide 2- 42

History of Data Models

Network Model:

The first network DBMS was implemented by

Honeywell in 1964-65 (IDS System).
Adopted heavily due to the support by CODASYL
(Conference on Data Systems Languages)
(CODASYL - DBTG report of 1971).
Later implemented in a large variety of systems IDMS (Cullinet - now Computer Associates), DMS
1100 (Unisys), IMAGE (H.P. (Hewlett-Packard)),
VAX -DBMS (Digital Equipment Corp., next
COMPAQ, now H.P.).
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Example of Network Model Schema

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Network Model

Advantages:

Network Model is able to model complex

relationships and represents semantics of
add/delete on the relationships.
Can handle most situations for modeling using
record types and relationship types.
Language is navigational; uses constructs like
FIND, FIND member, FIND owner, FIND NEXT
within set, GET, etc.

Programmers can do optimal navigation through the

database.
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Network Model

Disadvantages:

Navigational and procedural nature of processing

Database contains a complex array of pointers
that thread through a set of records.

Little scope for automated query optimization

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History of Data Models

Hierarchical Data Model:

Initially implemented in a joint effort by IBM and

North American Rockwell around 1965. Resulted
in the IMS family of systems.
IBMs IMS product had (and still has) a very large
customer base worldwide
Hierarchical model was formalized based on the
IMS system
Other systems based on this model: System 2k
(SAS inc.)
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Hierarchical Model

Advantages:

Simple to construct and operate

Corresponds to a number of natural hierarchically organized
domains, e.g., organization (org) chart
Language is simple:

Uses constructs like GET, GET UNIQUE, GET NEXT, GET

NEXT WITHIN PARENT, etc.

Disadvantages:

Navigational and procedural nature of processing

Database is visualized as a linear arrangement of records
Little scope for "query optimization"

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History of Data Models

Relational Model:

Proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd (IBM), first commercial

system in 1981-82.
Now in several commercial products (e.g. DB2, ORACLE,
MS SQL Server, SYBASE, INFORMIX).
Several free open source implementations, e.g. MySQL,
PostgreSQL
Currently most dominant for developing database
applications.
SQL relational standards: SQL-89 (SQL1), SQL-92 (SQL2),
SQL-99, SQL3,
Chapters 5 through 11 describe this model in detail
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History of Data Models

Object-oriented Data Models:

Several models have been proposed for implementing in a

database system.
One set comprises models of persistent O-O Programming
Languages such as C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or
VERSANT), and Smalltalk (e.g., in GEMSTONE).
Additionally, systems like O2, ORION (at MCC - then
ITASCA), IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).
Object Database Standard: ODMG-93, ODMG-version 2.0,
ODMG-version 3.0.
Chapters 20 and 21 describe this model.

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History of Data Models

Object-Relational Models:

Most Recent Trend. Started with Informix

Universal Server.
Relational systems incorporate concepts from
object databases leading to object-relational.
Exemplified in the latest versions of Oracle-10i,
DB2, and SQL Server and other DBMSs.
Standards included in SQL-99 and expected to be
enhanced in future SQL standards.
Chapter 22 describes this model.
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Summary

Data Models and Their Categories

History of Data Models
Schemas, Instances, and States
Three-Schema Architecture
Data Independence
DBMS Languages and Interfaces
Database System Utilities and Tools
Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
Classification of DBMSs
Slide 2- 52