CE- 342

MINOR LOSSES
M.Ndini

Piping system

Most pipe systems, however, consist of

considerably more than straight pipes.
These additional components (valves,
bends, tees, and the like) add to the
overall head loss of the system. Such
losses are generally termed minor

Losses
Often it is necessary to determine the head loss, hL, that occurs in a
pipe flow so that the energy equation can be used in analyze of pipe
flow problems.
The overall head loss for the pipe system consist of:
The head loss due to viscous effects in the straight pipes, termed
major loss and denoted hLmajor, and
The head los in the various pipe component, termed the minor loss
and denoted hLminor.
That is hL = hLmajor + hLminor

Minor losses
The head loss in long, straight sections of pipe can be
calculated by use of the friction factor obtained from
either
the Moody chart or
the Colebrook equation.
Losses occur in straight pipes (major losses) and
pipe system components (minor losses).
The head loss information for essentially all components
is given in dimensionless form and based on
experimental data.

Minor losses
The most common method used to determine these
head losses or pressure drops is to specify the loss
coefficient, KL, which is defined as
where hL is the additional
irreversible head loss in the piping
system caused by insertion of the
component, and is defined as:

The pressure drop across a component that has a loss coefficient of KL = 1

is equal to the dynamic pressure, V2/2.
For a given value of KL the head loss is proportional to the square of
velocity.

Losses due to pipe

system
components
are given in terms
of loss
coefficients, KL

PL

Flow through a
valve

The head loss associated with flow through a valve is a common minor loss. The flow
resistance or head loss through the valve may be a significant portion of the resistance in
the system. With the valve closed, the resistance to the flow is infinite. With the valve wide
open the extra resistance due to the presence of the valve may or may not be negligible.

Head loss in a valve is due

to dissipation of the kinetic
energy of the large-velocity
fluid near the valve seat.

When the pipe diameter downstream of the component changes,

determination
of the minor loss is even more complicated.
In all cases, however, it is based on the additional irreversible loss
of mechanical energy that would otherwise not exist if the minor
loss component were not there

the component
influences the
flow
for several pipe
diameters
downstream.

The loss coefficient, KL

The actual value of KL is strongly dependent on the geometry of the

component considered.
It may also be dependent on the fluid flow condition :
KL = (Geometry, Re)
As the Reynolds number is large enough so that the flow through the
component is dominated by inertia effects, with viscous effects being of
secondary importance.
In a flow that is dominated by inertia effects rather than viscous effects, it
is usually found that pressure drops and head losses correlate directly with
the dynamic pressure.
This is the reason why the friction factor for very large Reynolds number,
most flows
theThe
fully developed pipe flow is independent of the For
Reynolds
number.
same condition is found to be true for flow through loss
pipe coefficient
components.is
independent of the
Thus, in most cases of practical interest the loss coefficients K ,for

Equivalent length

Minor losses are also expressed in terms of the

equivalent length Lequiv, defined as:

Total Head Loss

Once all the loss coefficients are available, the total head loss in a
piping system is determined from Total head loss (general):

where i represents each pipe section with constant diameter and j

represents each component that causes a minor loss. If the entire
piping system being analyzed has a constant diameter D= 0 and V=
average velocity:

Transition sections
Any change in flow area contributes losses that are not accounted for in the
fully developed head loss calculation (the friction factor).
Many pipe systems contain
various transition sections
in which the pipe diameter
changes from one size to
another.
Such changes may occur
abruptly or rather smoothly
through some type of area
change section.
The extreme cases involve
flow into a pipe from a
reservoir (an entrance) or
out of a pipe into a reservoir
(an exit).

Entrance flow conditions and loss coefficient.

Each geometry has an associated loss coefficient
(a) Reentrant, KL = 0.8

(c) slightly rounded, KL = 0.2

(b) sharp-edged, KL = 0.5

(d) well-rounded, KL = 0.04

Vena
contracta
If the exit is not a smooth, well-contoured
nozzle, but rather a flat plate, the diameter of
the jet,dj, will be less than the diameter of
the hole, dh.
This phenomenon, called a vena contracta
effect, is a result of the inability of the fluid to
turn the sharp 90 corner indicated by the
dotted lines in the fig.

The vena
contracta effect is
a function of the
geometry of the
outlet!

Each geometry has an associated loss coefficient.

A vena contracta region may result because the fluid cannot turn
a sharp right-angle corner.
The flow is said to separate from the sharp corner. V max at section -2is >> Vmax at section -3-, and the pressure there is lower.

The net effect is that the loss

coefficient for a squareedged entrance is
approximately KL = 0.50.
One-half of a velocity head is
lost as the fluid enters the
pipe

Flow pattern and pressure distribution for a sharp

edged entrance
The extra kinetic energy of the fluid at section (2) is partially lost because of
viscous dissipation so that the pressure does not return to the ideal
value.

Viscous dissipation: irreversible process by means of which the work

done by the fluid on adjacent layers due to the action of shear forces
is transformed into heat is defined as viscous dissipation
The majority of this loss is due to inertia effects that are eventually
dissipated by the shear stresses within the fluid.
Only a small portion of the loss is due to the wall shear stress within the
entrance region.
Minor head losses are
often a result of the
dissipation of
kinetic energy.

Entrance loss coefficient as a function of rounding of

the inlet edge
An obvious way to reduce the entrance loss is to round the
entrance region thereby reducing or eliminating the vena
contracta effect.
Pipe
entrance
losses
can be
relatively
easily
reduced by
rounding
the inlet.

Entrance flow conditions and loss

coefficient

a- Reentrant, KL = 0.8
KL = 0.5

c- slightly rounded, KL = 0.2

KL = 0.04

b- sharp edged,

d- well-rounded,

Loss coefficient for a sudden contraction

The loss coeff. KL is a function of the area ratio, A2/A1.

Submerged outlet
The loss coefficient for a submerged pipe exit is often listed in handbooks as KL = 1.
At any such exit, whether laminar or turbulent, the fluid leaving the pipe, loses all of
its kinetic energy as it mixes with the reservoir fluid and eventually comes to rest
through the irreversible action of viscosity.

This is true, regardless of the shape

of the exit.
Therefore, there is no need to round
the pipe exits.

Exit flow conditions and loss

coefficient
a- Reentrant, KL = 1.0
edged, KL = 1.0

b- sharp

In these cases the entire kinetic energy of the

exiting fluid (velocity V1) is dissipated through
viscous effects as the stream of fluid mixes
with the fluid in the tank and eventually
comes to rest V2 = 0
The exit loss from points 1 and 2 is therefore
equivalent to one velocity head, or KL = 1

c- slightly rounded, KL = 1.0 d- well-rounded, KL

= 1.0

- Continuity eq.
- Moment eq.

-Energy eq.

Character of the flow in a 90 bend and the associated loss coefficient

Character of the flow in 90 mitered

bend and the associated loss
coefficient:
a) Without guide vanes,
b) B)with guide vanes

A piping system may have many minor losses which are all correlated
to V2/2g
Sum them up to a total system loss for pipes of the same diameter

V2
hL h f hm
2g
m

L
f D Km
m

EGL & HGL for Losses in a Pipe

Entrances, bends, and
other flow transitions
cause the EGL to drop an
amount equal to the
head loss produced by
the transition.
EGL is steeper at
entrance than it is
downstream of there
where the slope is equal
the frictional head loss in
the pipe.
The HGL also drops
sharply downstream of

Example-1: Head Loss and Pressure Rise during Gradual

Expansion
A 6-cm-diameter horizontal water pipe expands gradually to a 9-cm-diameter pipe. The walls
of the expansion section are angled 30 from the horizontal. The average velocity and pressure
of water before the expansion section are 7m/s and 150kPa, respectively.
Determine the head loss in the expansion section and the pressure in the larger-diameter pipe.
Assumptions 1- The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 -The flow at sections 1 and 2 is fully
developed and turbulent with 1 = 2 = 1.06.
Properties We take the density of water to be
= 1000 kg/m3. The loss coefficient for gradual
expansion of u 60 total included angle is
KL = 0.07.

Example-2
Water is to be withdrawn from a 3-m-high water reservoir by drilling
a 1.5-cm-diameter hole at the bottom surface.
Disregarding the effect of the kinetic energy correction factor,
determine the flow rate of water through the hole if (a) the entrance
of the hole is well-rounded and (b) the entrance is sharp-edged.
Assumptions;
1 The flow is steady and incompressible.
2 The reservoir is open to the atmosphere
so that the pressure is atmospheric
pressure at the free surface.
3 The effect of the kinetic energy
correction factor is disregarded, and thus
= 1.
KL = 0.5 (for the sharp ended entrance)
KL = 0.03 (for the well-rounded entrance)

8-58

Example-3
A horizontal pipe has an abrupt expansion from D1 = 8 cm to D2 = 16 cm.
The water velocity in the smaller section is 10 m/s and the flow is turbulent.
The pressure in the smaller section is P1 = 300 kPa.
Taking the kinetic energy correction factor to be 1.06 at both the inlet and
the outlet, determine the downstream pressure P2, and estimate the error
that would have occurred if Bernoullis equation had been used.

861

Example-4
A 3-m-diameter tank is initially filled with water 2 m above the center of
a sharp-edged 10-cm-diameter orifice.
The tank water surface is open to the atmosphere, and the orifice
drains to the atmosphere through a 100-m-long pipe.
The friction coefficient of the pipe can be taken to be 0.015 and the
effect of the kinetic energy correction factor can be neglected.

Determine (a) the

initial velocity from
the tank and (b) the
time required to
empty the tank.
871

Next lesson- quiz!!!

Example
GIVEN: The closed-circuit wind tunnel in which air at standard
conditions is to flow through the test section [between sections (5)
and (6)] with a velocity of 61 m/s.
The flow is driven by a fan that essentially increases the static
pressure by the amount p1-p9 that is needed to overcome the head
losses experienced by the fluid as it flows around the circuit.
Estimate the value of p1-p9 and the horsepower
supplied to the fluid by the fan.

Pipe Flow Examples

The application of the pertinent equations is
straightforward, with rather simple calculations that
give
answers
to
problems
of
engineering
importance. The main idea involved is to apply the
energy equation between appropriate locations
within the flow system, with the head loss written in
terms of the friction factor and the minor loss
coefficients.
We will consider two classes of pipe systems:
those containing a single pipe (whose length may
be interrupted by various components), and
those containing multiple pipes in parallel, series,
or network configuration

Single pipes
There are basically three types of problems
involved with uniform flow in a single pipe:
1. Determine the head loss, given the kind
and size of pipe along with the flow rate, Q
= A*V
2. Determine the flow rate, given the head,
kind, and size of pipe
3. Determine the pipe diameter, given the
type of pipe, head, and flow rate

Single pipes
In a Type I problem we specify the desired flowrate or average
velocity and determine the necessary pressure difference or
head loss. For example, if a flowrate of 7.6 l/min is required for
a dishwasher that is connected to the water heater by a given
pipe system, what pressure is needed in the water heater?
In a Type II problem we specify the applied driving pressure or,
alternatively, the head loss, and determine the flowrate. For
example, how many galmin of hot water are supplied to the
dishwasher if the pressure within the water heater is 414kPa
and the pipe system details :length, diameter, roughness of
the pipe; number of elbows; etc.are specified?
In a Type III problem we specify the pressure drop and the
flowrate and determine the diameter of the pipe needed. For
example, what diameter of pipe is needed between the water
heater and dishwasher if the pressure in the water heater is
141kPa, determined by the city water system, and the flowrate
is to be not less than 7.6 l/min ,determined by the
manufacturer?

Pipe flow problems can be characterized by what

parameters are given and what is to be calculated

Types of pipe flow problems

Given D; L; V (Q); ; ; . Compute the head loss Hf or
pressure drop (head loss problems).
Calculate Re and /D from given data
Obtain f from the Moodys chart
Given D; L; Hf ; ; . Compute the velocity V or flowrate Q;
VD 2 gh D
Re
f

Calculate /D from given data and Re V L

Use Colebrook formula and the above and Eq. obtain f.
Obtain Re from Moodys chart and hence Q
Given Q; L; Hf; ; ; . Compute the diameter D of the pipe
(size problems)
Assume a suitable value of f and calculate D from DarcyWeisbach equation
With this trial value of D, calculate /D and Re
With this /D and re, calculate f from Moodys chart
Repeat the process till f become same
1/ 2

Given: Liquid in pipe has

= 8 kN/m3. Acceleration
= 0.
D = 1cm, = 3x10-3 Nm/s2.
Find: Is fluid stationary,
moving up, or moving
down? What is the mean
V12
p1
V22
p
velocity?
1

z1 hL 2
2
2g

Solution:
Energy eq. 2 g
200,000
110,000
from
z=
h0L to
z = 10m
10
8000
8000
90
hL
10
8
hL 1.25 m (moving upward)
hL

32 LV
D 2

D 2
V hL
32 L
V 1.25

8000*( 0.01 )2

32*3 x10 -3*10

V 1.04 m / s

Ex(1-ok)

z2

Given: Kerosene (=0.94,

=1.9Ns/m2). Horizontal 10-m
pipe. Q=2x10-3 m3/s. H=1.5 m;
d= 2cm.
Find: Pressure drop per 10 m of
pipe.V 2 p
V22 p2
1
1
1
z1 hL 2

z2
Solution:
2g
2g
hL

Ex(2-duhet ribere me te tjera vlera

Te jepet humbja)

32 LV
D 2

V22
0 0 0 .5
2
00
2
2
g
D
2 2 32 L
V2
V 0 .5 0
2g
D 2
32 LV

2 2
32 * 4 * 10 5 * 10
V2
V 0.5 0
2
2g
0.8 * 62.4 * (1 / 32)
V22 8.45V 16.1 0
V 1.60 ft / s
0.8 * 1.94 * 1.6 * (0.25 / 12)
Re
1293 (laminar)
4 * 10 5
Q V * A 1.6 * * (0.25/12) 2 / 4 1.23 * 10 3 cfs

Given: Figure
Find:
Estimate
the
elevation required in the
upper reservoir to produce
a water discharge of 10 cfs
in the system. What is the
minimum pressure in the
pipeline and what is the
pressure there?
Solution:

Ex(3)

V2 p
V2 p
1 1 1 z1 hL b b b zb
2g
2g

V12 p1
V22 p2
1
z1 hL 2

z2
2g
2g
0 0 z1 hL 0 0 z2

V2 p
0 0 z1 hL 1 * b b zb
2g

L V2
hL K e 2 K b K E f
D 2g

K e 0.5; K b 0.4 (assumed) ; K E 1.0; f

V

L
430
0.025 *
10.75
D
1

Q
10

12.73 ft / s
A / 4 * 12

12.732
z1 100 0.5 2 * 0.4 1.0 10.75
133 ft
2 * 32.2

pb
V2
L V2
z1 zb b K e K b f

2g
D 2g
300 12.732
133 110.7 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.025

1 2 * 32.2

1.35 ft

pb 62.4 * ( 1.53) 0.59 psig

Re

VD
12.73 * 1

9 * 105

1.14 * 10

Ex(4)

Given: If the deluge through

the system shown is 2 cfs,
what horsepower is the
pump supplying to the
water? The 4 bends have a
radius of 12 in and the 6-in
pipe is smooth.
Find: Horsepower
Solution:
V12 p1
V22 p2
1

z1 h p 2

z 2 hL
2g
2g

0 0 30 h p
V

V22
0 60
2g

(1 0.5 4 K b f

Q
2

10.18 ft / s
A ( / 4)(1 / 2) 2

V22
1.611 ft
2g
VD 10.18 * (1 / 2)
Re

4.17 x105

1.22 x10 5

L
)
D

So f = 0.0135
h p 60 30 1.611(1 0.5 4 * 0.19 0.0135
107.6 ft
p

Qh p
550

24.4 hp

1700
)
(1 / 2)

Homework assignment-1
Oil with = 900 kg/m3 and = 0.00001 m2/s, flows at 0.2
m3/s through 500m of 200-mm diameter cast iron pipe.
Determine a) the head loss and b) the pressure drop if
the pipe slopes down at 10 in the flow direction.

Homework assignment-2
A commercial new galvanized iron service pipe from a
water main is required to delevered 200L/s of water
during a fire. If the length of the service pipe is 35m, the
allowable head loss in the pipe is 50m and the kinematic
viscosity of water at 20c is 1.00x10-6 m2/sec, what is the
pipe diameter to be used for this purpose

Homework assignment-3
A 50-mm diameter galvanized iron service pipe is
connected to a water main in which the pressure is 450
kPa gage. If the length of the service pipe to a faucet is
40 m and the faucet is 1.2m above the main, estimate
the flowrate when the faucet is fully open.