SOIL MOISTURE

CONSTANTS

SOIL WATER
Soilscontain considerable amounts ofwater.
Soil can take in water, and will keep doing so until
the rate at which they can transmit water into
and through the pores is exceeded.
Much of the water will beretained, away from
the influence of gravity, for use ofplantsand
other organismsto contribute to land productivity
andsoil health

Soil water retention

Pores provide for the passage and/or retention
of gases and moisture within the soil profile.
Soil water retention depends on:
Particle size
Clay type
Organic content
Soil structure

Types of soil water

3 basic types:
Gravitational water --- -1/3 bar
Capillary water --- -1/3 to -31 bars
Hygroscopic water --- -10,000 bars

Contd
Gravitational water:
Moves through the soil due to the force of
gravity.
Found in the macropores.
Not considered to be available to plants.
Drains out of the soil in 2-3 days

Contd
Capillary water:
Found in the micropores.
Most, but not all, of this water is available for plant
growth
Held in the soil against the pull of gravity
Capillary water is held by cohesion and adhesion
Amount of water held is a function of the pore size and
pore space.
Tension (in bars) increases as the soil dries out.

Contd
Hygroscopic water:
Forms very thin films around soil particles.
Not available to the plant.
Not held in the pores, but on the particle surface.
Clay will contain much more of this type of water
than sands because of surface area differences.
Held very tightly, by forces of adhesion this
water is not available to the plant.

Soil moisture constants

Soil moisture is always being subjected to
pressure gradients and vapour pressure
differences that cause it to move.
Certain moisture contents are of particular
significance in agriculture --- Soil moisture
constants.

Contd
Saturation capacity:
When all the pores of the soil are filled with
water, the soil is said to be under saturation
capacity or maximum water holding capacity.
Tension of water at saturation capacity is
almost zero and it is equal to free water
surface.

Contd
Field capacity:
The field capacity is the upper limit of available
moisture range in soil moisture and plant relations.
Large soil pores are filled with air, the micro pores are
filled with water.
Soil moisture tension at field capacity varies from soil
to soil, but it generally ranges from 1/10 to 1/3
atmospheres.

Contd
Moisture equivalent:
Moisture equivalent is defined as the
amount of water retained by a sample of
initially saturated soil material after being
subjected to a centrifugal force of 1000
times that of gravity for a definite period of
time, usually half an hour.

Contd
Permanent wilting percentage :
Also known as permanent wilting point or wilting coefficient
Soil moisture content at which plants can no longer
obtain enough moisture to meet transpiration
requirements; and remain wilted unless water is added to
the soil.
Moisture tension of a soil at the permanent wilting point
ranges from 7 to 32 atmospheres.

Contd
Wilting range:
Range in soil-moisture content through which plants
undergo progressive degrees of permanent or irreversible
wilting, from wilting of the oldest leaves to complete
wilting of all leaves.
Moisture content at which the wilting is complete and the
plants die is called the ultimate wilting.
At the ultimate wilting point soil-moisture tension may be
as high as 60 atmospheres.

Contd
Available water:
Soil moisture between field capacity and
permanent wilting point
It is the moisture available for plant use.
Fine-textured soils have a wide range of water
between field capacity and permanent wilting
point than coarse textured soils.

Fig: Soil moisture constants

Table: Range of available water holding capacity of soils

Fig: Response of water to different

soils

Movement of water within soils

Moves along gradients of decreasing water potential.
Water in the liquid phase:
flows through the water filled pore space under
the influence of gravity.
moves under the influence of surface tension
forces (under unsaturated conditions).
Water in vapour phase:
moves through the air-filled pore spaces along
gradients of decreasing vapour pressure.

Contd
Flow rate of water depends on:
Gradients in soil water potential (m) caused by
differences in height, pressure, dissolved
solutes and soil wetness.
Hindrances: friction between water and particle
surfaces as well as pore constrictions and other
interruptions in flow path

Contd
It is generally recognized that three types
of water movement occur in soil:
Saturated
Unsaturated
Vapour

http://www.maf.govt.nz/mafnet/schools/activities/swi/swi-04.htm

SATURATED FLOW OF SOIL WATER

Saturated flow occurs when soil pores are
completely filled with water (i.e.m> 33 J/Kg).
Occur in aquifers (water - bearing sediments and
rock layers), in flooded soil and in lower horizons
of soil with limited drainage
Pore size is of outstanding significance, as its
fourth power is proportional to the rate of
saturated flow

Contd
Saturated flow decreases as the pore size
decreases.
Generally the rate of flow in soils of various
textures is in the following sequence.
Sand > loam > clay
Poiseuilles law forms the basis.

UNSATURATED FLOW OF SOIL WATER

Water flow when larger pores in soil are filled with
air is said to be unsaturated.
Smaller pores hold and transmit water.
Contribution of hydraulic head or the
gravitational component to total potential
becomes progressively less
Negligible effect of solute potential is due to the
fact that both solutes and water are moving.

Contd
Driving force for water flow in these conditions
is through the matric potential gradient (i.e.m)
Movement will therefore be in the direction of
moist soil to dry soil and from thick moisture- to
thin moisture-films
In horizontal movement, only m applies.
In downward movement, capillary and
gravitational potentials act together.
together

Contd

Contd
As the soil moisture content and soil moisture
potential decreases, the k decreases rapidly, so
that soil is 15 bars, k is only 10-3 of the value
at saturation.
Rapid decrease in conductivity occurs because
the larger pores are emptied first, which greatly
decreases the cross-section available for liquid
flow.

Contd
Unsaturated conductivity is a function of soil moisture
content , number, size and continuity of soil pores
When the continuity of the films is broken, liquid flow no
longer occurs.
Movement of unsaturated flow ceases in sand at a lower
tension than in fine textured soils, as the water films
lose continuity sooner between the larger particles.
Wetter the soil, the greater is the conductivity for
water

Contd
In the moist range, the range of
unsaturated flow in soils of various textures
is in the following order:
Sand < loam < clay
In the wet range the unsaturated
conductivity occurs in the same or similar
order as saturated conductivity

WATER VAPOUR MOVEMENT

Vapour transfer increases as void space increases.
At a soil moisture potential of about-15 bars, the
continuity of the liquid films is broken and water
moves only in the form of vapour.
Vapour pressure gradient acts as the driving force.
Vapour pressure of soil moisture increases with the
increase in soil moisture content and temperature, it
decreases with the increase in soluble salt content.

Contd
Water vapour movement is significant only in
the moist range.
Rate of diffusion of water vapour through the
soil is proportional to the square of the
effective porosity, regardless of pore sizes.
Finer the soil pores, the higher is the moisture
tension under which maximum water vapour
movement occurs

Contd
In a coarse textured soil pores become
free of liquid water at relatively low
tensions and when the soil dries out
there is little moisture left for vapour
transfer
Fine textured soil retains substantial
amounts

of

moisture

even

at

high

tensions, thus permitting vapour transfer

Measurement
of
Moisture
Content

Moisture Content
It is the quantity of water contained in a
material. Like soil (soil moisture), rock,
ceramics and wood.
Moisture content is used in a wide range of
scientific and technical areas. Like smart
irrigation, ground water studies, soil chemistry
etc.
Moisture content is expressed as a ratio, which
can range from 0 (completely dry) to the value of
the materials' porosity at saturation.
Moisture content can be given on a volumetric or
mass (gravimetric) basis.

Calculation of Moisture Content

ure content() is calculated either on volumetr

= Volume of water and

is the

total volume (that is soil volume + water volume + air

space).
Or it is calculated on mass (gravimetric basic):
Where

is the mass of water and

is the bulk mass.

Methods for measurement of Moisture Co

1.Direct Methods
2.Laboratory methods
3.Geophysical methods

4.Satellite remote sensing meth

DIRECT METHODS
Gravimetric Methods: Soil sample from the desired depths are collected

with a soil auger in air tight aluminum containers.The soil samples are weighed
and they are dried in an oven at 105 degree C for about 24 hours until all the
moisture is driven off. After removing from oven, they are cooled slowly to room
temperature and weighed again. the difference in weight is amount of moisture in
the soil. The moisture content in the soil is calculated by the following formula:
Moisture content
on weight basis

Wet weight Dry weight

=

----------------------------Dry weight

X 100

Gravimetric Techniques
Oven drying a soil sample at 1050C for
about 12 hours.

Volumetric Method: Soil sample is taken with a core sampler or

with a tube auger whose volume is known. The amount of water
present in soil sample is estimated by drying it in the oven and
calculating by following formula:
Moisture content = Moisture content (%) by weight x Bulk Density (%) by volume

Volumetric Soil Moisture (gm/cm3)

2. Laboratory Methods
These methods which determine moisture content
of a sample include chemical titrations (for
example the Karl Fischer titration), determining
mass loss on heating (perhaps in the presence of
an inert gas), or after freeze drying.

3. Geo-physical Methods
There are several geophysical methods available that can
approximate in situ(in place) soil water content:
1.Time-domain reflectometry (TDR),
2.Neutron probe,
3.Frequency domain sensor,
4.Capacitance probe,
5.Amplitude domain reflectometry,
6.Electrical resistivity tomography
7.Ground penetrating radar (GPR)

4. Satellite remote sensing Method

Satellite microwave remote sensing is used to
estimate soil moisture based on the large
contrast between the dielectric properties of wet
and dry soil.
The microwave radiation is not sensitive to
atmospheric variables, and can penetrate
through clouds.
Also, microwave signal can penetrate, to a
certain extent, the vegetation canopy and
retrieve information from ground surface .
The data from microwave remote sensing
satellite such as: WindSat, AMSR-E, RADARSAT,
ERS-1-2, Metop/ASCAT are used to estimate
surface soil moisture.

Measurement
Techniques
Survey of methods for soil moisture determination, Water Resources
Research, Vol. 16, No.6, Page961-879, 1980, Schmugge et al. (1980)

In Situ Methods
Gravimetric
Nuclear Techniques
Electromagnetic
Techniques

Remote Sensing
Methods
Visible & near IR Reflected
Solar
Thermal IR Surface
Temperature
Passive Microwave
Microwave

Gravimetric
Techniques
0
Oven drying aW
soil sample
at
105
C

W
wet
dry
for about
%M12 hours.

*100

wt

Wdry

%M wt * Yd
Volumetric Soil Moisture
(gm/cm3)

Nuclear Techniques
Fast neutrons emitted by an
Americium 241: Beryllium
radioactive source are
themalised (slowed) by hydrozen
in the test sample
Advantages : SM can be measured at the any time, average
SM can be measured with depth, system can be interfaced
for automatic recording, temporal SM changes can be
measured, readings are directly related SM
Disadvantages : Surface soil moisture is not accurate, care
must be taken to minimize health risks.

Electromagnetic
Techniques
The technique is based on the
electrical properties of the soil that
varies with soil moisture. Resistivity
or Capacitance between electrodes in
a soil is measured for Soil moisture.

r
i
Complex Dielectric Constant

Tensiometric
Techniques
Measures the capillary tension or the
energy with which water is held
(suction) by the soil.
Tensiometers consist of porous ceramic
cup connected by a continuous liquid
column to a vacuum gauge or
transducer.
Advantages : easy to design, cost little,
at any conditions in real time, placed in

Soil Water
Models
SMt= SMt-1+P-R-L-E-T+CQ
SMt Soil moisture at time t
SMt-1 Soil moisture at previous time
P Precipitation
R Surface Runof
L - net lateral subsurface outflow
E Evaporation or condensation
T Transpiration
C Capillary rise from lower levels
Q - percolation

USDAHL Model
NWSRFS model

Remote Sensing Metho

Visible Technique: Reflected solar

is measured.
(0.4 1.7 m)
Relationship between Reflectanc
Depends on reflectance of dry soi
roughness, colour, illumination,
organic matter, soil texture.

Thermal Infrared
Techniques
Diurnal range of Surface
Temperature(Tmax-Tmin) or Measurement
of crop canopy air temperature
diferential.
(Tmax-Tmin) depends on internal and external factors
Internal factors : Thermal conductivity(K) and heat capacity
(C ) where P = (KC)1/2 is known as Thermal Inertia. K and C
increases with Soil Moisture.
External Factors : solar radiation, air temperature, RH,
cloudiness, and wind.

Diurnal Temperature Variation versus

Soil Moisture

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