What is Microbiology?

Microbes, or microorganisms are minute living

things that are usually unable to be viewed with the
naked eye.

What are some examples of microbes?

Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, viruses are
examples!

Some are pathogenic

Many are beneficial
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 1
 Defining Microbiology
Microbiology defined as the study of
organisms too small to be seen with the
naked eye. These organisms include
viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, and
protozoa. Microbiologists are concerned
with characteristics and functions such as
morphology, cytology, physiology,
ecology, taxonomy, genetics, and
molecular biology. Dr.T.V.Rao MD 2
 What is Microbiology

Study of different
Microorganisms
Can be
Bacteria
Viruses
Parasites
Fungus

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 3
 What are Microorganisms

Microbes are
products of
evolution,
Consequence of
Natural selection
operating upon
vast array of
genetically diverse
organisms
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 4
 History of Microbiology
1673-1723, Antoni
van Leeuwenhoek
(Dutch) described
live
microorganisms
that he observed in
teeth scrapings,
rain water, and
peppercorn
infusions. Dr.T.V.Rao MD 5
Anton van Leeuwenhoek 1674
- 1st person to actually see living microorganisms

Leeuwenhoek1632-1723

wee animalcules
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 6
 History of Microbiology
The Germ Theory of Disease
1835: Agostino Bassi showed a silkworm
disease was caused by a fungus.
1865: Pasteur believed that another silkworm
disease was caused by a protozoan.
1840s: Ignaz Semmelweis advocated
handwashing to prevent transmission of
puerperal fever from one OB patient to
another.
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 7
The Germ Theory of Disease
1860s: Joseph Lister used a
chemical disinfectant to
prevent surgical wound
infections after looking at
Pasteurs work showing
microbes are in the air, can
spoil food, and cause animal
diseases.
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 8
 History of microbiology
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (16321723): was the first microbiologist and the first
person to observe bacteria using a single-lens microscope of his own design.
Louis Pasteur (18221895): Pasteur developed a process (today known as
pasteurization) to kill microbes. pasteurization is accomplished by heating liquids to 63 to
65C for 30 minutes or to 73 to 75C for 15 seconds.
Robert Koch (18431910): was a pioneer in medical microbiology and worked in
cholera, anthrax and tuberculosis. He was awarded a Nobel prize in 1905 (Koch's postulates)
he set out criteria to test.
Alexander Fleming (1929): Discovered penicillin.

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 9
 Joseph Lister
1860s: Joseph Lister
used a chemical
disinfectant to
prevent surgical
wound infections
after looking at
Pasteurs work
showing microbes are
in the air, can spoil
food, and cause
animal diseases.

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 10
 Course objectives
To provide the student with the basic
knowledge of micro-organisms in
general
To study the main characteristics of
Microbes of medical importance
To teach aseptic techniques
To provide an understanding of
antimicrobial agents
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 11
 Other Objectives
To teach the basic
immunological
principles
Immunological
methods for the
study
immunological
disorders

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 12
 Coverage of subject
General
Microbiology
Bacteriology
Mycology
Virology
Immunology
Parasitology
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 13
 Microbes in Our Lives
Microorganisms
are organisms that
are too small to be
seen with the
unaided eye.
Germ refers to a
rapidly growing
cell.
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 14
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 15
 Microbes make the Universe

There are > 5 x 1030

types Microbes in
the world
Humans have
intimate relation
with Microbes > 90%
of the cells in our
Body are Microbes
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 16
 Classification of Microorganisms
Three domains
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
Protists
Fungi
Plants
Animals
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 17
Naming and Classifying
Microorganisms
Carolus Linnaeus (1735)
established the system of
scientific nomenclature.
Each organism has two
names: the genus and
specific epithet.
Are italicized or
underlined. The genus is
capitalized and the
specific epithet is lower
case.

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 18
Edward Jenner Vaccinating a
Child

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 19
 Louis Pasteur
1922 - 95
Contributed best in
Microbiology
Sterilization
Hot Air oven
Autoclave
Anthrax vaccine
Rabies vaccine
Built the Pasteur
Institute
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 20
 Louis Pasteur
Pasteur coined the
word Vaccine
Vacca Cow cow
pox virus are given for
the prevention of
Small Pox
Louis Pasteur
considered the father
of Modern
Microbiology

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 21
 Robert Koch
1843 - 1910
A German scientist
Formulated the
Bacteriological
techniques
Staining Methods
Discovered the
Mycobacterium and
Vibrio cholera

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 22
 Biological Principles illustrated by
Microbiology

Microbiology

Molecular
Biochemistry Genetics
Biology

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 23
Microorganisms

Non-cellular organism Virus

Prokaryotes Bacterium

Eukaryotes Fungi

Others Prions Viroid

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 24
 Organisms included in the study
of Microbiology
1. Bacteria Bacteriology
2. Protozoans Protozoology
3. Algae Phycology
4. Parasites Parasitology
5. Yeasts and Molds
Fungi Mycology
6. Viruses Virology
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 25
Man has Evolved So also the Microbes

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 26
How to Study Medical Microbiology?

Fundamentals of Microbiology
Biological Properties
Bacteriology Morphology, identification,
Antigenic structure
Pathogenesis and Pathology
Clinical findings
Diagnostic Laboratory Tests
Virology Immunity
Treatment & Prevention
Epidemiology & Control

Mycology
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 27
Basic Classification of Microorganism
Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
Large in size Small in Size
Mitochondria Present DNA not separated from
Membrane bound Nucleus cytoplasm
Eg Algae Mitochondria absent
Protozoa
Fungi Eg Bacteria
Slime Moulds
Contains all enzymes for Contains all enzymes like
production of metabolic Eukaryotes
energy

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 28
 Summary of differences between
prokaryote and eukaryote cells
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryote cells
Small cell (< 5m) Larger cells (> 10 m)
Always unicellular Often multicellular
No nucleus or any membrane bound organelles Always have nucleus and membranes bound
organelles.

DNA circular, without proteins DNA is linear and associated with proteins to
form chromatin.

Ribosomes are small 70S Ribosomes are large 80S

No cytoskeleton Always have cytoskeleton
Motility by rigid rotating flagellum made from Motility by flexible waving cilia or flagella
flagellin made from tubulins.

Cell division is by binary fission Cell division is by meiosis and mitosis.

Reproduction is always asexual Reproduction is sexual and asexual.
 Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Prokaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller
than eukaryotic cells. A typical Escherichia coli
cell is about 1 m wide and 2 to 3 m long.
Structurally, prokaryotes are very simple cells
when compared with eukaryotic cells, and yet
they are able to perform the necessary
processes of life. Reproduction of prokaryotic
cells is by binary fission, the simple division of
one cell into two cells, after DNA replication and
the formation of a separating membrane and cell
wall.
Bacteria
Prokaryotes
Peptidoglycan cell
walls
Binary fission
For energy, use
organic chemicals,
inorganic chemicals,
or photosynthesis

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 31
 Bacterial Cell Wall
The structure of bacterial cell walls is quite different from the relatively simple structure of
eukaryotic cell walls, although they serve the same functions, providing rigidity, strength, and
protection. The main constituent of most bacterial cell walls is a complex macromolecular polymer
known as peptidoglycan (murein), consisting of many polysaccharide chains linked together by
small peptide (protein) chains. Peptidoglycan is only found in bacteria. The thickness of the cell
wall and its exact composition vary with the species of bacteria. The cell walls of Gram-positive
bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan combined with teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid
molecules. The cell walls of Gram-negative bacteria have a much thinner layer of peptidoglycan,
but this layer is covered with a complex layer of lipid macromolecules, usually referred to as
bacteria capsule.
Figure 1-9: Gram Stain
Figure 3-1. Various forms of bacteria, including single cocci, diplococci, tetrads,
octads, streptococci, staphylococci, single bacilli, diplobacilli, streptobacilli,
branching bacilli, loosely coiled spirochetes, and tightly coiled spirochetes.
Morphologic arrangements of
bacteria.
Capsule stain. The capsule stain is an example of a negative staining technique. The
bacterial cells and the background stain, but the capsules do not. The capsules are
seen as unstained halos around the bacterial cells.
 . Flagellar arrangement. The four basic types of flagellar arrangement on bacteria:
peritrichous, flagella all over the surface; lophotrichous, a tuft of flagella at one end;
amphitrichous, one or more flagella at each end; monotrichous, one flagellum.
Binary fission. Note that DNA replication must occur before the actual
splitting (fission) of the parent cell.
Pathogenic Prokaryotes
Bacteria

Mycoplasma

Spirochetes

Chlamydiae

Rickettsia

Actinomyces

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 39
 Viruses
A viral particle consists of a nucleic acid molecule, either DNA or RNA,
enclosed in a protein coat, or capsid

Viruses lack many of the attributes of cells, including the ability to

replicate. Only when it infects a cell does a virus acquire the key
attribute of a living system: reproduction

Viruses are known to infect all cells, including microbial cells. Host-virus
interactions tend to be highly specific

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 40
 Discovery of Virus
Iwanovski
a Russian chemist, 1892
Tobacco Mosaic Disease
Beijerinck confirmed

Walter Reed, USA

Yellow fever virus
Ist human virus
Tobacco mosaic disease,
caused by the tobacco
mosaic virus

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 41
Viruses
A virus is not a cell!
Viruses are replicated
only when they are in a
living host cell
Consist of DNA or RNA
core
Core is surrounded by a
protein coat
Coat may be enclosed in
a lipid envelope

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 42
 What are Viruses
Viruses Dependent on
Host cells for necessary
functions and
Multiplication
Intracellular
parasites
Contain either
DNA or RNA
never both.
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 43
 Prion
A kind of infectious protein that can resist the digestion of proteinase

The cellular form of the prion protein (PrPc) is encoded by the hosts
chromosomal DNA

An abnormal isoform of this protein (PrPres) is the only known

component of the prion and is associated with transmissibility.

Kuru, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), Gerstmann-

Strussler-Scheinker disease, fatal familial insomnia
, and Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 44
 Viroid
Small, single-stranded, covalently closed circular RNA molecules
existing as highly base-paired
rod-like structures; they do not possess capsids

They range in size from 246 to 375 nucleotides in length. The

extracellular form of the viroid is naked RNAthere is no capsid of any
The RNA molecule contains no protein-encoding genes, and the viroid
kind
is therefore totally dependent on host functions for its replication
The RNAs of viroids have been shown to contain
inverted repeated base sequences at their 3' and 5' ends, a
characteristic of transposable elements and retroviruses. Thus, it is
likely that they have evolved
from transposable elements or retroviruses by the deletion of internal
sequences

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 45
 Kochs Postulates
1 The bacterium should be constantly associated with
lesions of Disease
2 It should be possible to isolate the bacterium in pure
culture from the lesions
3 Inoculation of such pure culture into laboratory animal
should reproduce the lesions of the disease
4 It is possible to reisolate the bacterium in pure culture
from the lesions produced in the experimental animal

Additional criterion specific antibodies in the

serum of patients suffering with disease

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 46
Kochs postulates

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 47
 Scientific era of Antibiotics
1928: Alexander
Fleming discovered
the first antibiotic.
He observed that
Penicillium fungus
made an antibiotic,
penicillin, that killed
S. aureus.
1940s: Penicillin was
tested clinically and
mass produced.
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 48
 Discovery of Antibiotics
Alexander Fleming (1881-1955)

Sir Alexander Fleming Ernst Boris Chain Sir Howard Walter Florey

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 49
Microbes are used to produce
Antibiotics

Penicillin

Mold
Pencillium notatum

1928 Alexander Fleming

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 50
 Modern Developments
Bacteriology is the study of bacteria.
Mycology is the study of fungi.
Parasitology is the study of protozoa and
parasitic worms.
Recent advances in genomics, the study of
an organisms genes, have provided new
tools for classifying microorganisms.

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 51
 Microbes and Human Disease
Normal micro biota prevent growth of
pathogens.
Normal micro biota produce growth factors
such as folic acid and vitamin K.
Resistance is the ability of the body to
ward off disease.
Resistance factors include skin, stomach
acid, and antimicrobial chemicals.

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 52
How to Study Medical Microbiology?

Fundamentals of Microbiology
Biological Properties
Bacteriology Morphology, identification,
Antigenic structure
Pathogenesis and Pathology
Clinical findings
Diagnostic Laboratory Tests
Virology Immunity
Treatment & Prevention
Epidemiology & Control

Mycology
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 53
Bacteria - what comes to mind?
Diseases
Infections
Epidemics
Food Spoilage
Only 1% of all known bacteria cause human
diseases
About 4% of all known bacteria cause plant
diseases
95% of known bacteria are non-pathogens
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 54
 Staphylococcus aureus Escherichia coli
Staphylococcus Bacillus anthrasis
epidermidis Salmonella enteridis
Streptococcus Streptococcus pyogenes
pneumonia Steptococcus lactis
Streptococcus faecalis
Vibrio cholera
Erlichia canis
Rhodospirillium rubrum Campylobacter jujuni
Bacillus subtilis Helicobacter pylori
Micrococcus luteus Enterobacter aerogenes

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 55
 Microbes Benefit Humans
1.Bacteria are primary decomposers - recycle
nutrients back into the environment (sewage
treatment plants)
2. Microbes produce various food products
cheese, pickles, sauerkraut, green olives
yogurt, soy sauce, vinegar, bread
Beer, Wine, Alcohol

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 56
 Microbes are also capable of
causing many diseases
Pneumonia Whooping Cough
Botulism Typhoid Fever Measles
Cholera Scarlet Fever Mumps
Syphilis Gonorrhea Herpes 1
Chlamydia Tuberculosis Herpes 2
Meningitis Tetanus RMSV
Strep Throat Lyme Disease AIDS
Black PlagueDiarrhea Dr.T.V.Rao MD Gangrene 57
 Progress of Hepatitis Viruses
1947, concepts of hepatitis A and serum-
transmitted hepatitis
1970, Dane particle was observed
(hepatitis B virus)
1973, hepatitis A virus
1978, non-A, non-B hepatitis viruses
(NANBV)
1989, hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis E
virus (HEV)
1990-1994, non A-E hepatitis viruses
1995, hepatitis G virus (HGV)
1997, TT virus (TTV)
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 58
 Human Immunodeficiency Virus & AIDS
1981, the first cases report
about AIDS
1983, HIV was isolated
1990s, HAART (cocktail therapy)
was employed
So far, no effective vaccine
available

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 59
HIV AIDS
Luc Montaigner and
Robert Gallo
announce their
discovery of the
immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) believed
to cause AIDS.
(American Society
for Microbiology
Archives)
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 60
 Parasitology
Parasitology is the study
of parasites .and their
interactions with their
hosts. The science of
parasitology has a long
history and has its roots
in zoology, with its
emphasis on the
identification and
classification of parasites
and of life cycles,

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 61
 Taxonomic classification of parasitic organisms

The classification of parasites is controversial -

there is no universally accepted system
Parasites form part of the animal kingdom which
comprises some 800,000 identified species
categorised into 33 phyla (but it is estimated
that there may be ~10m species in total)
The parasitic organisms that are of importance
for human health are eukaryotes - they have a
well defined chromosome in a nuclear
membrane (as opposed to prokaryotes which
have no nuclear membrane, e.g. bacteria)
 Taxonomic classification of parasitic
organisms
Parasites are classified into 2 sub-
kingdoms: protozoa (unicellular) and
metazoa (multicellular)
Protozoan (unicellular) parasites are
classified according to morphology and
means of locomotion. There are 45,000
protozoa species. Most species that cause
human disease belong to the phylum's
sarcomastigophora and apicomplexa
Metazoa (multicellular) include the worms
(helminths) and arthropoda (posses an
external skeleton) e.g. ticks, lice
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 63
 What Are Fungi
Considerable variation
in size.
Internal Molecular
system
Well defined cell wall
composed of
polysaccharides
Gaining importance in
Immunosupressed
patients and increased
use of Antibiotics
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 64
Zoonotic Diseases

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 65
 How Humans Respond to Infections
Study of Immunology

In spite of Infection
we survive with our
ability to protect
with a system
inherent in our Body
Called the Immune
response comprises
the Medical
Immunology

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 66
Pathogenesis
Immunity

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 67
Immunity Protects the Living by
Complex Mechanisms

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 68
 Why we should
Medical Microbiology
We study the
Microbes which
infects and causes
Diseases
We study their
Diagnosis
Prevention
Treatment
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 69
 Modern Developments in
Microbiology
Immunology is the study
of immunity. Vaccines and
interferons are being
investigated to prevent
and cure viral diseases.
The use of immunology to
identify some bacteria
according to serotypes
(variants within a species)
was proposed by Rebecca
Lancefield in 1933.

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 70
 Must learn

Natural History of the Disease

Etiology
Pathogenesis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment and Control and
Prevention Dr.T.V.Rao MD 71
We must be familiar with Knowledge
On .

Names of the Microbes

Names of the diseases
Mode of transmission
Pathogenic Microbes
Commensal Organisms
Identify wether Bacteria, Virus, Parasite or
Fungi
Treating and Preventing

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 72
 The Birth of Modern Chemotherapy

Treatment with chemicals is chemotherapy.

Chemotherapeutic agents used to treat infectious
disease can be synthetic drugs or antibiotics.
Antibiotics are chemicals produced by bacteria and
fungi that inhibit or kill other microbes.
Quinine from tree bark was long used to treat malaria.
1910: Paul Ehrlich developed a synthetic arsenic drug,
salvarsan, to treat syphilis.
1930s: Sulfonamides were synthesized.

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 73
 Commonly Used Antibiotics
Penicillin
Cephalosporins,
Tetracycline's
Quinolones
Vancomycin
Chloramphenicol
Drugs for Tuberculosis eg Streptomycin

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 74
 Vaccines Produce Immunity
and Prevents Several Infections

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 75
 Commonly used Vaccines
Small pox eradicated
BCG,
MMR
Polio oral Vaccine
Triple Antigen
Hepatitis B Vaccine
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 76
 What Skills You should
Develop

Able to identify the Infective Conditions

Timely Diagnosis
Choosing appropriate tests
Selection of Antibiotics
Implement measures to prevent diseases
in patients and Society
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 77
 Protect Yourself from
Infections
Certain infections
can infect you
Eg HIV, Hepatitis B
infections,Tubercul
osis,Many
respiratory
infections

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 78
 Working In the Hospital

Hospitals are not safe

Follow Universal
precaution protect
yourself as our patients
can be source of
Infection if you don't
handle the matters with
scientific knowledge.

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 79
Medical Microbiology advanced Beyond our
Imagination
Can we handle it ???

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 80
 Major Selected Nobel Prizes in Physiology or
Medicine
1901* von Behring Diphtheria antitoxin
1902 Ross Malaria transmission
1905 Koch TB bacterium
1908 Metchnikoff Phagocytes
1945 Fleming, Chain, Florey Penicillin
1952 Waksman Streptomycin
1969 Delbrck, Hershey, Luria Viral replication
1987 Tonegawa Antibody genetics
1997 Prusiner Prions
* The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 81
 Students requirement for the course

Timetable
Literature books, etc
Practical manual
Laboratory coat
Attendance and active participation
Seek advice timely
Dr.T.V.Rao MD 82