STATISTICS

WHY TEACHER NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT

STATISTICS

To know how to properly present and describe

information.
To know how to draw conclusions about large
populations based only on information obtained
from samples
To know how to improve processes
To know how to obtain reliable forecasts.
Statistics - the science of
collecting, organizing, analyzing,
and interpreting data.
Statistical Methods

•Descriptive Statistics
Collecting and describing
data.
•Inferential Statistics
Making decisions based on sample
data.
 Descriptive Statistics
•Collect Data e.g. Survey

•Present Data e.g. Tables and Graphs

•Characterize Data e.g. Mean  x i

n
A Characteristic of a:
Population is a Parameter
Sample is a Statistic.
 Inferential Statistics

•Estimation
•Hypothesis
Testing

Making decisions concerning a

population based on sample
results.
 Types of Data

Data

Categorical Numerical

Discrete Continuous
Types of Data

• Qualitative Data - non-numerical characteristics or labels

Examples: Eye Color, First Name
Favorite Movie, Political Party
Quantitative Data - numerical measurements or quantities
Examples: Height, Weight, Income
Resting Pulse Rate, Blood Alcohol Level
Types of Data Sets

• Population - data set consisting of all

outcomes, measurements, or responses
of interest

• Sample - data set which is a subset of

the population data set
Types of Measurements

• Parameter - a numerical measurement

made using the population data set

• Statistic - a numerical measurement

made using a sample data set
Levels of Measurement

• Nominal Data – Can be qualitative only. Data values serve as

labels, but the labels have no meaningful order.
Examples: Blood Type, College Major, Breed of
Dog, Shape of Bacteria in a Petri Dish
• Ordinal Data – Can be qualitative or quantitative. Data values
serve as labels but the labels have a natural meaningful order.
Differences between values, however, are meaningless.
Examples: Statistics Grade, NCAA Basketball
Rankings, Terror Threat Level
• Interval Data – Are always quantitative. Data values are numerical, so they
have a natural meaningful order, and differences between data values are
meaningful. The ratio of two data values, however, is meaningless. This
occurs when zero is an arbitrary measurement rather than actually indicating
“nothing”.
Example: Temperature, Year of Birth
• Ratio Data – Are always quantitative. Data values are numerical, have order,
and both differences and ratios between values are meaningful. Zero
measurement indicates absence of the quantity being measured.
Example: Weight, Height, Volume, Number of Children
Descriptive Statistics

Summarizes or describes the important

characteristics of a known set of data.
Measures of Central
Tendency
convey the idea of centralness for
the data set.
- Numerical values that are indicative of the
central point or the greatest frequency
concerning a set of data. The most common
measures of central tendency are the mean,
median, and mode.
- Basis in determining whether the group is
performing better or poorer than the other
groups
MEAN

• The Mean requires interval or ratio data - you

cannot compute it for either nominal or
ordinal data.
• Arithmetic average, used when the
distribution is normal/symmetrical or bell-
shaped
• Most reliable/ stable
MEAN (FORMULA)

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

Mean =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
Example

1. What is the mean for the following sample values? 3, 8,

6, 14, 0, -4, 0, 12, -7, 0, -10.


• Solution:
 386140(4)012(7)0(10)  2
X
11
MEDIAN

• The Median requires ordinal data - and you can

compute it for interval and ratio. You cannot
compute the Median for nominal data.
• Midpoint of a distribution
• Point in a distribution above and below which
are 50% of the scores/cases
• Used when the distribution is skewed
What is the median for the following sample values?

3 8 6 14 0 -4 2 12 -7 -1 -10

Solution: We need to arrange the data set in order. The order set is as follows:

-10 -7 -4 -1 0 2 3 6 8 12 14

Median
2. Find the median for the ages of the following eight
college students:
23 19 32 25 26 22 24 20

• Solution: First order the values, The ordered array

is
19 20 22 23 24 25 26 32

median = (23 + 24)/2 = 23.5

MODE

• The mode requires only nominal data - and you

can compute it for ordinal, interval, and ratio.
• Most frequent/common score in a distribution.
• Unreliable/unstable
• Used as a quick description in terms of
average/typical performance of the group
WHAT IS THE MODE FOR THE FOLLOWING SAMPLE VALUES?
3 5 1 4 2 9 6 10
THE DATA SET HAS NO MODE

WHAT IS THE MODE FOR THE FOLLOWING SAMPLE VALUES?

3 5 1 4 2 9 6 10 5 3 4 3 9 3 6 1
THE VALUE OF THE IS MODE IS 3, UNIMODAL
What is the mode for the following
sample values?
6 10 5 3 4 3 9 3 6 1 6
The values of the mode are 3 and 6,
bimodal
PREPARING GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

84 80 68 87 86 70 79 90 67 80
82 62 85 86 61 86 87 91 78 86
72 96 89 84 78 88 78 78 82 76
70 86 85 88 70 79 75 89 73 86
72 68 82 89 81 69 77 81 77 83
1. Find the RANGE (subtract the highest to the
lowest score)
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝐻 − 𝐿 96 − 61 = 35
2. Determine the class interval/class size by
dividing the range into desired number of classes
(10-15)
35
=3
11
3. Determine the lowest interval. It should be a
multiple of class interval (60)
Lowest interval: 60-62
4. Record the limits of the intervals, tally raw
scores and convert each tally to frequency
 X Frequency
96-98 1
93-95 0
90-92 2
87-89 7
84-86 10
81-83 6
78-80 8
75-77 4
72-74 3
69-71 4
66-68 3
63-65 0
60-62 2
N= 50
Set class boundaries( integral class limit) and
cumulative frequency
 X Frequency Class Boundaries Cumulative Freq.
96-98 1 95.5-98.5 50
93-95 0 92.5-95.5 49
90-92 2 89.5-92.5 49
87-89 7 86.5-89.5 47
84-86 10 83.5-86.5 40
81-83 6 80.5-83.5 30
78-80 8 77.5-80.5 24
75-77 4 74.5-77.5 16
72-74 3 71.5-74.5 12
69-71 4 68.5-71.5 9
66-68 3 65.5-68.5 5
63-65 0 62.5-65.5 2
60-62 2 59.5-62.5 2
N= 50
GET THE MEAN (GROUP)

𝑆𝑓𝑐𝑚
Mean = ,
𝑁

Sfcm = summation of f x classmark/ number of scores

 X Frequency Class Cumulative Class Mark fcm
Boundaries Freq. ( Midpoint)
96-98 1 95.5-98.5 50 97 97
93-95 0 92.5-95.5 49 94 0
90-92 2 89.5-92.5 49 91 182
87-89 7 86.5-89.5 47 88 616
84-86 10 83.5-86.5 40 85 850
81-83 6 80.5-83.5 30 82 492
78-80 8 77.5-80.5 24 79 632
75-77 4 74.5-77.5 16 76 304
72-74 3 71.5-74.5 12 73 219
69-71 4 68.5-71.5 9 70 280
66-68 3 65.5-68.5 5 67 201
63-65 0 62.5-65.5 2 64 0
60-62 2 59.5-62.5 2 61 122
N= 50 Sfcm = 3995
GET THE MEAN (GROUP)

3995
Mean = = 79.9 = 80
50
GET THE MEDIAN (GROUP)

𝑁
−𝐶𝑓
Median = L + ( 2
)i
𝑓
L = lower limit of the median class
N= total number of scores
Cf = cum freq below the median class
F= frequency of the median class
i = class size
 X Frequency Class Cumulative Class Mark fcm
Boundaries Freq. ( Midpoint)
96-98 1 95.5-98.5 50 97 97
93-95 0 92.5-95.5 49 94 0
90-92 2 89.5-92.5 49 91 182
87-89 7 86.5-89.5 47 88 616
84-86 10 83.5-86.5 40 85 850
81-83 6 80.5-83.5 30 82 492
78-80 8 77.5-80.5 24 79 632
75-77 4 74.5-77.5 16 76 304
72-74 3 71.5-74.5 12 73 219
69-71 4 68.5-71.5 9 70 280
66-68 3 65.5-68.5 5 67 201
63-65 0 62.5-65.5 2 64 0
60-62 2 59.5-62.5 2 61 122
N= 50 Sfcm = 3995
GET THE MEDIAN (GROUP)

𝑁
−𝐶𝑓
Median = L + ( 2
)i
𝑓
N/2 = 50/2 = 25
 X Frequency Class Cumulative Class Mark fcm
Boundaries Freq. ( Midpoint)
96-98 1 95.5-98.5 50 97 97
93-95 0 92.5-95.5 49 94 0
90-92 2 89.5-92.5 49 91 182
87-89 7 86.5-89.5 47 88 616
84-86 10 83.5-86.5 40 85 850
81-83 6 80.5-83.5 30 = Md 82 492
78-80 8 77.5-80.5 24 79 632
75-77 4 74.5-77.5 16 76 304
72-74 3 71.5-74.5 12 73 219
69-71 4 68.5-71.5 9 70 280
66-68 3 65.5-68.5 5 67 201
63-65 0 62.5-65.5 2 64 0
60-62 2 59.5-62.5 2 61 122
N= 50 Sfcm = 3995
GET THE MEDIAN (GROUP)

50
−24
Median = 80.5 + ( 2
)3= 81
6
GET THE MODE (GROUP)

50
−24
Median = 80.5 + ( 2
)3= 81
6
Mo = 3Md – 2M
Mo = 3(81)-2(79.9)
= 83.2
Measures of Variability

• A measure of variability for a collection of data

values is a number that is meant to convey the idea
of spread for the data set. The most commonly
used measures of variability for sample data are
the range, the interquartile range, the mean
absolute deviation, the variance or standard
deviation, and the coefficient of variation.
Measures of Variability

•More spread/larger variability =

heterogeneous
•Less spread/smaller variability -
homogeneous
Range

• difference between the largest and smallest

values in a data set.
• The range does not use the concept of deviations.
It is affected by outliers (large or small values
relative to the rest of the data set) and does not
utilize all the information in the data set –only the
largest and smallest values. It is not a very useful
measure of variation.
Range

•Difference between the highest

and lowest score
•Unreliable/unstable; mode
counterpart
•Quick, rough estimation
When to Use Range

• When it is desired to make a rough

comparison of two or more groups for
variability
• When all that is desired is to know the
spread of the scores
What is the range for the following sample values?
9 1014 1000 997 1001 1002 999 995
990

Range = 1005
The Variance and Standard Deviation

• The Variance and Standard Deviation are the most

common and useful measures of variability. These two
measures provide information about how the data vary
about the mean.
• If the data are clustered around the mean, then the
variance and standard deviation will somewhat small.
• There is small variability when the data values are
clustered about the mean
Sample Variance


 x)
( x  2

2
S n 1

• The formula says that you subtract the mean from each data
value and square the differences, then you add these values
and divide by the sample size minus 1.

Do not let the formula frighten you. We will build a table to help
compute the variance.
What is the variance for the following sample
values?
3 8 6 14 0 11
• Solution: First of all, we need to compute the sample
mean:


3  8  6  14  0  11 42
X   7
6 6
Table Used in Helping to Compute the Sample Variance

Data Deviations (x-mean) Squared Deviations

(x-mean)
3 3 – 7 = -4 16
8 8–7=1 1
6 6 – 7 = -1 1
14 14 – 7 = 7 49
0 0 – 7 = -7 49
11 11 – 7 = 4 16
Total 0 132
The sample variance is


 x)
( x  2

2
S n 1

132 132
   26.4
2
S 6 1 5
The Variance (Group)

𝑆𝑓𝑑2
Variance = ( 𝑆𝑓𝑑 )𝑖
𝑁− 2
𝑁
 X Frequenc Class Cumulati Class fcm d fd fd2
y Boundari ve Freq. Mark (
es Midpoint)
96-98 1 95.5-98.5 50 97 97 6 6 36
93-95 0 92.5-95.5 49 94 0 5 0 0
90-92 2 89.5-92.5 49 91 182 4 8 64
87-89 7 86.5-89.5 47 88 616 3 21 441
84-86 10 83.5-86.5 40 85 850 2 20 400
81-83 6 80.5-83.5 30 82 492 1 6 36
78-80 8 77.5-80.5 24 79 632 0 0 0
75-77 4 74.5-77.5 16 76 304 -1 -4 16
72-74 3 71.5-74.5 12 73 219 -2 -6 36
69-71 4 68.5-71.5 9 70 280 -3 -12 144
66-68 3 65.5-68.5 5 67 201 -4 -12 144
63-65 0 62.5-65.5 2 64 0 -5 0 0
60-62 2 59.5-62.5 2 61 122 -6 -12 144
N= 50 Sfcm =
3995 Sfd=15 sfd2=1425
The Variance (Group)

1425
Variance = 15 3 = 86.54
50 − 2
50
Standard Deviation

• Mean counterpart
• Reliable/stable
When to Use Standard Deviation

• When it is desired to have a measure of

variability which has the highest
reliability.
• When it is desired to calculate the
coefficient of correlation and measures
of reliability later on.
 Sample Standard Deviation


 ( x  x) 2
S
n 1
1. The sample standard deviation is approximately equal to the average distance
(MAD) of the observations from their mean.
2. If all of the observations have the same value, the sample standard deviation will
be zero. That is, there is no variability in the data set.
3. The variance (standard deviation) is influenced by outliers (very small or very
large values) in the data set.
4. The unit for the standard deviation is the same as that for the raw data, so it is
preferable to use the standard deviation instead of the variance as a measure of
variability.
What is the standard deviation for the following sample values?
3 8 6 14 0 11

• Solution:

 (x  x) 2
S
n 1

132
S  26.4  5.14
5
Quartile Deviation

• One-half of the difference between quartile 3 and

quartile 1
• Median counterpart; used if skewed
When to Use the Quartile Deviation

• When it is desired to have a quick

inspectional measure of variability.
• When there are scattered or extreme
measures.
• When it is desired to find the degree of
score density around the median.
Quartile Deviation (Group)

𝑁
−𝐶𝑓
Q1 = 𝐿 + 4
𝑖
𝑓
3𝑁
−𝐶𝑓
Q3 = 𝐿 + 4
𝑖
𝑓
 X Frequency Class Cumulative
Boundaries Freq.
96-98 1 95.5-98.5 50
93-95 0 92.5-95.5 49
90-92 2 89.5-92.5 49
87-89 7 86.5-89.5 47
84-86 10 83.5-86.5 40
81-83 6 80.5-83.5 30
78-80 8 77.5-80.5 24
75-77 4 74.5-77.5 16
72-74 3 71.5-74.5 12
69-71 4 68.5-71.5 9
66-68 3 65.5-68.5 5
63-65 0 62.5-65.5 2
60-62 2 59.5-62.5 2
N= 50
Quartile Deviation (Group)

50
−12
Q1 = 74.5 + 4
3
4
3(50)
−30
Q3 = 83.5 + 4
3
10
Measures of Relationship

•Degree of relationship or
correlation between two variables
•Correlation coefficient (-1 to 0 to
1)
Measures of Relationship

Correlation Coefficient Degree of Relaitonship

0.00-0.20 Negligible
0.21-0.40 Low
0.41 – 0.60 Moderate
0.61 – 0.80 Substantial
0.81- 1.00 High to Very High
Measures of Relationship

Pearson r
• Most appropriate
• Stable
• Data are interval or ratio type
• When relationship between the two variables is a linear
one
Measures of Relationship

Spearman rank order

correlation/Spearman rho
• Most appropriate if expressed as ranks instead
of scores
• Ordinal scale
 MEASURE OF RELATIVE POSITION

Indicate where a score is in RELATION

to all other scores in the distribution;
they make it possible to compare the
performance of an individual in two or
more different tests
 MEASURE OF RELATIVE POSITION

Quartile, Decile, Percentile

Percentile Ranks
Standard Scores
Stanine Scores
T-Scores
QUARTILE

• Point measure that divides a distribution into

FOUR equal parts
• Q1 = bottom 25% to top 75%; 25% of scores fall
below Q1
• Q2 = median
• Q3 = top 25% from bottom 75%; 25% of scores
fall above Q3 and 75% below of it
QUARTILE
𝑁
−𝐶𝑓
Q1 = 𝐿 + 4
𝑖
𝑓
L = lower limit of Q1 class
N/4 = locator of Q1 class
Cf = cum freq before the Q1 class
f = frequency of the Q1 class
i = class size
 X Frequency Class Cumulative Class Mark fcm
Boundaries Freq. ( Midpoint)
96-98 1 95.5-98.5 50 97 97
93-95 0 92.5-95.5 49 94 0
90-92 2 89.5-92.5 49 91 182
87-89 7 86.5-89.5 47 88 616
84-86 10 83.5-86.5 40 85 850
81-83 6 80.5-83.5 30 82 492
78-80 8 77.5-80.5 24 79 632
75-77 4 74.5-77.5 16 = Q1 76 304
72-74 3 71.5-74.5 12 73 219
69-71 4 68.5-71.5 9 70 280
66-68 3 65.5-68.5 5 67 201
63-65 0 62.5-65.5 2 64 0
60-62 2 59.5-62.5 2 61 122
N= 50 Sfcm = 3995
QUARTILE
50
−12
Q1 = 74.5 + 4
3 = 74.875
4

Thus, students got a score of 74.875 and below

belong to the bottom 25% of the total scores
QUARTILE
3𝑁
−𝐶𝑓
Q3 = 𝐿 + 4
𝑖
𝑓
L = lower limit of Q1 class
3N/4 = locator of Q1 class
Cf = cum freq before the Q1 class
f = frequency of the Q1 class
i = class size
 X Frequency Class Cumulative Class Mark fcm
Boundaries Freq. ( Midpoint)
96-98 1 95.5-98.5 50 97 97
93-95 0 92.5-95.5 49 94 0
90-92 2 89.5-92.5 49 91 182
87-89 7 86.5-89.5 47 88 616
84-86 10 83.5-86.5 40 = Q3 85 850
81-83 6 80.5-83.5 30 82 492
78-80 8 77.5-80.5 24 79 632
75-77 4 74.5-77.5 16 76 304
72-74 3 71.5-74.5 12 73 219
69-71 4 68.5-71.5 9 70 280
66-68 3 65.5-68.5 5 67 201
63-65 0 62.5-65.5 2 64 0
60-62 2 59.5-62.5 2 61 122
N= 50 Sfcm = 3995
QUARTILE
3(50)
−30
Q3 = 83.5 + 4
3= 85.75
10

Thus, students got a score of 85.75 and below

belong to the bottom 75% and top 25% of the
total scores
DECILE

• Point measure that divides a distribution into

TEN equal parts
• D1 = bottom 10% to top 90%; 10% of scores fall
below D1
• D5 = median
• D3 = bottom 30% from top 70%;
DECILE
7𝑁
−𝐶𝑓
D7 = 𝐿 + 10
𝑖
𝑓
L = lower limit of D7 class
7N/10 = locator of D7 class
Cf = cum freq before the D7 class
f = frequency of the D7 class
i = class size
 X Frequency Class Cumulative Class Mark fcm
Boundaries Freq. ( Midpoint)
96-98 1 95.5-98.5 50 97 97
93-95 0 92.5-95.5 49 94 0
90-92 2 89.5-92.5 49 91 182
87-89 7 86.5-89.5 47 88 616
84-86 10 83.5-86.5 40 = D7 85 850
81-83 6 80.5-83.5 30 82 492
78-80 8 77.5-80.5 24 79 632
75-77 4 74.5-77.5 16 76 304
72-74 3 71.5-74.5 12 73 219
69-71 4 68.5-71.5 9 70 280
66-68 3 65.5-68.5 5 67 201
63-65 0 62.5-65.5 2 64 0
60-62 2 59.5-62.5 2 61 122
N= 50 Sfcm = 3995
DECILE
35−30
D7 = 83.5 + 3 = 85
10

Thus, students got a score of 85 and

below belong to the bottom 70% and
top 30% of the total scores
PERCENTILE

• Point measure that divides a distribution into

ONE HUNDRED equal parts
• P50 = median = D5
PERCENTILE
30𝑁
−𝐶𝑓
P30 = 𝐿 + 100
𝑖
𝑓
L = lower limit of P30 class
7N/10 = locator of P30 class
Cf = cum freq before the P30 class
f = frequency of the P30 class
i = class size
 X Frequency Class Cumulative Class Mark fcm
Boundaries Freq. ( Midpoint)
96-98 1 95.5-98.5 50 97 97
93-95 0 92.5-95.5 49 94 0
90-92 2 89.5-92.5 49 91 182
87-89 7 86.5-89.5 47 88 616
84-86 10 83.5-86.5 40 85 850
81-83 6 80.5-83.5 30 82 492
78-80 8 77.5-80.5 24 79 632
75-77 4 74.5-77.5 16 = P30 76 304
72-74 3 71.5-74.5 12 73 219
69-71 4 68.5-71.5 9 70 280
66-68 3 65.5-68.5 5 67 201
63-65 0 62.5-65.5 2 64 0
60-62 2 59.5-62.5 2 61 122
N= 50 Sfcm = 3995
PERCENTILE
15−12
P30 = 74.5 + 3= 76.75
4

Thus, students got a score of 76.75 and

below belong to the bottom 30% and
top 70% of the total scores
Quartile Deviation

• One-half of the difference between quartile 3 and

quartile 1
• Median counterpart; used if skewed
When to Use the Quartile Deviation

• When it is desired to have a quick

inspectional measure of variability.
• When there are scattered or extreme
measures.
• When it is desired to find the degree of
score density around the median.
Quartile Deviation (Group)

50
−12
Q1 = 74.5 + 4
3 = 74.875
4
3(50)
−30
Q3 = 83.5 + 4
3= 85.75
10
(85.75 – 74.875) / 2= 5.4375
PERCENTILE RANKS

• Indicates the percentage of scores that fall below

a given score.
• Approximate for data representing ordinal scale,
although frequently computed for interval data.
• Thus, the median of a set of scores corresponds to
the 50th percentile.
What is the percentile rank of 85?

• Score 85 belongs to class 84-86. Lower limit =

83.5
• Difference = 85 – 83.5 = 1.5
• Divide the difference into interval width (3).
Multiply by the frequency of the class (10) where
the score belongs. Thus,
(1.5/3) 10 = 5
 X Frequency Class Cumulative Class Mark fcm
Boundaries Freq. ( Midpoint)
96-98 1 95.5-98.5 50 97 97
93-95 0 92.5-95.5 49 94 0
90-92 2 89.5-92.5 49 91 182
87-89 7 86.5-89.5 47 88 616
84-86 10 83.5-86.5 40 85 850
81-83 6 80.5-83.5 30 82 492
78-80 8 77.5-80.5 24 79 632
75-77 4 74.5-77.5 16 76 304
72-74 3 71.5-74.5 12 73 219
69-71 4 68.5-71.5 9 70 280
66-68 3 65.5-68.5 5 67 201
63-65 0 62.5-65.5 2 64 0
60-62 2 59.5-62.5 2 61 122
N= 50 Sfcm = 3995
What is the percentile rank of 85?
• The obtained value (5) has to be added to the
frequency of the class interval below the class interval
containing 85. Thus,
5 + 6 = 11
- Divide 11 to 50, the total number of scores. Thus,
11 / 50 = 0.22 x 100 = 22%

If you scored 85 on this test, you did well or better

than 22% of the students in your class. On the other
hand, 78% surpassed you in the test.
STANDARDIZED SCORES

• A z score expresses how far a score is from the

mean in terms of standard deviation units
• Allows all scores from different tests to be
compared
• In cases of negative values transform z score to T
scores ( multiply z score by 10 + 50)
STANDARDIZED SCORES
𝑀
z=𝑥−
𝑆

Z= standard score
X = score
M = Mean
S = standard deviation
Which of the following two scores has a
better relative position?
a. A score of 59 on a test with a mean of 48 and
standard deviation of 11
b. A score of 59 on a test with a mean of 48 and
standard deviation of 6
Which of the following two scores has a
better relative position?
48
a. z = 59 − =1
11
48
b. z = 59 − = 1.83
6

The score of 59 in B has a better relative

position as its z score of 1.83 is higher
than 1, which is the z score of 59 in A.
STANINE SCORES

• Standard scores that tell the location of a raw

score in a specific segment in a normal
distribution which is divided into 9 segments,
number from 1 (low) through 9 (high)
• Scores falling within the boundaries of the
segments are assigned one of these 9 numbers
(standard nine)
STANINE SCORES

•Stanines 1,2,3 = below average

performance
•Stanines 4,5,6 = average performance
•Stanines 7,8,9 = above average
performance
WHAT DO STANINE MEANS?

A person with a score of 9 is in the top

4% of the scorers, while a person with a
score of 1 is in the bottom 4%. It
describes if a score is below the mean or
above the mean.
T-Scores

•Tells the location of a score in a

normal distribution having a
mean of 50 and a standard
deviation of 10.
SHAPES, DISTRIBUTIONS
AND DISPERSIONS OF DATA
Symmetrically Shaped Test Score
Distributions
A.Normal Distribution or Bell-Shaped Curved
Symmetrically Shaped Test Score
Distributions
A.Rectangular Distribution
Symmetrically Shaped Test Score
Distributions
U-Shaped Curve
Skewed Distribution of Test Scores

Measure of Dispersion tells us about

the variation of the data set.
Skewness tells us about the direction of
variation of the data set.
Skewed Distribution of Test Scores

Skewness is a measure of symmetry, or

more precisely, the lack of symmetry. A
distribution, or data set, is symmetric if it
looks the same to the left and right of the
center point
Symmetry or Skewness

A distribution is left-skewed
(or negatively skewed) if the
values are more spread out
on the left, meaning that
some low values are likely to
be outliers.
 Skewed Distribution of Test Scores
•Negatively Skewed Distribution
Skewed Distribution of Test Scores

•Positively Skewed Distribution

•Test is difficult
•Students’ performance are poor/very poor
•Most of the scores are low
Symmetry or Skewness

A distribution is right
skewed or positively
skewed if the values are
more spread out on the
right. It has a tail pulled
toward the right.
 Skewed Distribution of Test Scores
•Positively Skewed Distribution
Skewed Distribution of Test Scores

•Negatively Skewed Distribution

•Test is easy
•Students’ performance are good/very good
•Most of the scores are high
What is the relationship between mean, median
and mode for a normal distribution?

• Find the mean median and mode of:

1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6,
6, 7
• Mean is 4.
• Median is 4.
• Mode is 4.
G2 = Narrow, Tall Distribution: Homogeneous, Low Performance
G3 = Narrow, Tall Distribution: Homogeneous, High performance
G1 =Wide, Short Distribution: heterogeneous Performance
What is the relationship between mean, median and mode
of a left-skewed distribution?

• Find the mean, median and mode of:

0, 5, 10, 20, 40, 45, 45, 50, 50, 50, 60,
60, 60, 60, 60, 60, 70, 70, 70, 70, 70, 70,
70, 70
• The mean is 51.5.
• The median is 60.
• The mode is 70.
What is the relationship between mean, median and mode
of a right-skewed distribution?

• Find the mean, median, and mode of:

20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 30, 30, 30, 30, 30,
30, 45, 45, 45, 50, 50, 60, 70, 90
• The mean is 36.1.
• The median is 30.
• The mode is 20.
 Kurtosis

•Kurtosis is a parameter that describes the

shape of a random variable’s probability
distribution
•Equal mean, unequal SD
•Unequal mean, equal SD
•Equal variability, equal means
(different shape_
•Unequal mean, unequal SD
Positively or negatively Skewed?

1.Mode = 67 while median = 54

2.Median = 53 while mean = 41
3.Mean = 73 while mode = 49
4.Median = 34 while mode = 42
5.Median = 45 while mode = 47
In a normal distribution, which of the following is
true?

•Median = mode ≠ mean

•Median ≠ mode = mean
•Median ≠ mode ≠ mean
•Mean = median = mode
In a negatively skewed distribution, the following
statements are true EXCEPT

• Mean is not higher than the median.

• Median is lower than the mode.
• Mean is lower than the mode.
• Mode is less than the median.
The result of the test given by Teacher A showed a
negatively distribution. What kind of test did Teacher
A give?

•The rest is difficult.

•It is not too easy nor difficult.
•It is moderately difficult.
•It is easy.
When the distribution is skewed to the right, what
kind of test was administered?

•Difficult
•Easy
•Average/moderately difficult
•Partly easy-partly difficult