Computer Science Note

Overview of Computer Science
1.1 Introduction to Information and Communication Technology

1.2 Definition of Computer and Computer Science
1.3 Characteristics of computers
1.4 history and generation of computer
1.5 Types of computers
1.6 Applications of computers
•Atend of this chapter student understand what is computer and

computer science is about and explore its applications and impact in
other disciplines
compiled by Mebratu B. 3/16/2018

 Introduction to Information and Communication
Technology(ICT)
◦ Information refers to the knowledge obtained from reading,
investigation, study or research.
◦ Data  Information  Knowledge
Data Information
 raw facts data with context
 no context processed data
 just numbers and text value-added to data
◦ The tools to transmit information are the telephone, book, internet
,television and radio.
◦ We need information to make decisions and to predict the future.
◦ Informetrics - the measurement(study) of information

 COMMUNICATION
◦ Communication is an act of transmitting messages. It is a process
whereby information is exchanged between individuals using symbols,
signs or verbal interaction.
◦ Communication is important in order to gain knowledge. With
knowledge, we are more confident in expressing our thoughts and ideas.
 TECHNOLOGY
◦ Technology is the use of scientific knowledge, experience and resources
to create processes and products that fulfill human needs. Technology is
vital in communication.
Aiding(help) Communication – telephone and fax machines are the
devices used in extending communication.
Spreading(broadcast) Information – To broadcast information such as
news or weather reports effectively. Radio, television, satellites and the
World Wide Web (www) are powerful tools that can be used.

 WHAT IS ICT?
◦ ICT is the technology required for information processing.
◦ In particular, the use of electronic computers, communication
devices and software application to convert, store, protect,
process, transmit and retrieve information from anywhere and
anytime.
 Information and communications technology (ICT) involves
innovations in microelectronics, computing (hardware and
software), telecommunications and opto-electronics —micro-
processors, semiconductors, fiber optics.
 These innovations enable the processing and storage of
enormous amounts of information, along with rapid distribution
of information through communication networks.

 The Role of ICT
◦ Communication between individuals
◦ Communication between individuals and organisations
◦ Communication within a business
◦ Communication between a business and an external organisation
 Examples of ICT Use
◦ Mobile telephones
◦ Video and tele-conferencing
◦ desktop or Lap-top computers
◦ E-mail
◦ Multi-media communications(fax,telephone,TV)

 Definition of Computer and Computer Science
 Definition of computers
 An electronic device that accepts, processes, displays, and stores data.
 A programmable electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process data.
 Computer.. Latin word.. Compute
 Calculation Machine
 Computer, electronic machine that performs tasks, such as calculations or
electronic communication, under the control of a set of instructions called a
program
 Definition of computer science
 Computer science is a discipline that spans theory and practice. It
requires thinking both in abstract terms and in concrete terms. The
practical side of computing can be seen everywhere. Nowadays,
practically everyone is a computer user, and many people are even
computer programmers.

 Computer science also has strong connections to other disciplines. Many
problems in science, engineering, health care, business, and other areas can
be solved effectively with computers, but finding a solution requires both
computer science expertise and knowledge of the particular application
domain.
 Computer science is a discipline that involves the understanding and design
of computers and computational processes
 The discipline ranges from theoretical studies of algorithms to practical
problems of implementation in terms of computational hardware and
software.
 Computer scientists must be adept at modeling and analyzing problems.
They must also be able to design solutions and verify that they are correct.
Problem solving requires precision, creativity, and careful reasoning.

 Major areas of Computer Science include:
 1. Operating Systems--concerned with the development and structure of
complex programs which facilitate man-machine communications.
 2. Computational Science--the analysis of numerical methods for solving
mathematical problems with a computer.
 3. Programming Languages--the study of the design and properties of
languages by which humans communicate with computers.
 4. Architecture--the study and use of mathematical logic to design electronic
circuits.
 5. Intelligent Systems--concerned with means by which computers may
perform tasks which might be characterized as "intelligent" if performed by
humans.
 6. Automata Theory--an abstract study of computers and their capabilities.
◦ In automata theory we consider a mathematical model of computing.
 7. Information Storage and Retrieval--the study of methods for storing a vast
amount of data in a computer and methods for searching and retrieving this
data.
 8. Software Engineering--the study of tools and techniques for software
design, development, testing and maintenance.
 9 System and network administration—concerned manage, admin and
communication computer one another.

 Four important methods used in the study of computer
science are:
◦ Invention --- formulation of new algorithmic and new
architectural paradigms
◦ Design --- software engineering uses design principles to
build complex systems to solve computational problems
◦ Analysis --- certainly a major focus within computer science
is the analysis and evaluation of software, algorithms and
architecture.
◦ Experimentation --- use of experiments to reveal
computing principles is an important method of scientific
investigation within computer science.

 Characteristics of computers
 Storage capacity ->Computers help to save space and
economy by storing very large amount of data.
 Speed :These days’ computers process tasks in very
short period of time. . Computer speed measured in terms of
microsecond (10-6 one millionths), nanosecond (10-9 one billionths), and
Pico second (10-12 one trillionths).
 They can accomplish tasks in Nanoseconds or less.
 Accuracy : Once well programmed, computers
accomplish tasks accurately ( The perfectness of the
set of instruction )

 Versatility :Computers accomplish various types of tasks
at the same time or at different time. For this reason they
are called versatile. For example, while you are writing
some text, you can listen music
 Reliability :Now a day’s computers are used in sensitive
areas that need very high reliability. For example
hospitals are using computers in patient diagnosis
 Diligence :. Computers are capable of performing any task
given to them repetitively(persistent work or effort) or
consistency .
 Automatic
◦ Once necessary information and program is feed to the computer, it
performs processing without human intervention.

 No IQ (Intelligence Quotient)
◦ A computer is not a magical device, it is no intelligence of it’s
own, it
◦ cannot do any work without instruction from the user, thus,
user can
◦ determine, what tasks will the computer perform. So a
computer cannot take its own decision as you can.
 No feeling
◦ It denotes that the computers never get tried as the humans do,
if there are surplus amount of executions to be made then each
and every execution will be executed at the same time period.
 GIGO
◦ Stands for "Garbage In, Garbage Out." It means that if invalid
data is entered in a computer program, the resulting output will
also be invalid.

 Generations and history of computers
 Before the 1500s, in Europe, calculations were made with
an abacus.
 Used to count and calculate.
 still widely used in Asia!
 Invented around 500BC, available in many cultures (China,
Mesopotamia, Japan, Greece, Rome, etc.)
 In 1642, Blaise Pascal (French mathematician, physicist,
philosopher) invented a mechanical calculator called the
Pascaline. To help his father, a civil servant in tax
calculations
 In 1671, Gottfried von Leibniz (German mathematician,
philosopher) extended the Pascaline to do multiplications,
divisions, square roots: the Stepped Reckoner
 None of these machines had memory, and they required
human intervention at each step.

 In 1822 Charles Babbage (English mathematician,
philosopher), sometimes called the “father of computing”
built the Difference Engine
 Machine designed to automate the computation (tabulation)
of polynomial functions (which are known to be good
approximations of many useful functions)
 Implements some storage
In 1833 Babbage designed the Analytical Engine, but he died before he
could build it.
In 1945, two University of Pennsylvania scientists, John Mauchly &
Presper Eckert, designed the Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Calculator (ENIAC), the first general purpose electronic digital
computer.
Eckert and Mauchly subsequently developed the UNIVAC-I (Universal
Automatic computer), the first electronic computer offered as a
commercial product.
John Von Neuman, a mathematician genius at Princeton, is sometimes
called the intellectual father of computer.

 Based on the following five factors, computers can be
classified into five generations. The factors are:
 Circuit elements
 Type of secondary storage device
 Programming Language
 Operating System
 Access Time
 First Generation (1945 – 1954)

 Second Generation (1955 – 1964)
 Third Generation (1965 – 1974)
 Fourth Generation (1975 - present)
 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)

 First Generation
 The vacuum tubes were used in the circuits of these
computers
 The machine was capable to do one job at a time,
therefore batch processing was adopted.
 The language used by these computers was machine
language and assembly language.
 . Most applications were scientific calculations.
 Example of Computers: UNIVAC, IBM 650 etc.

 Second Generations
◦ Second generation computers started showing the characteristics of
modern day computers with utilities such as printers, disk storage
and operating systems. Much financial information was processed
using these computers.
◦ In Second Generation computers, the instructions (program) could be
stored inside the computer's memory. High-level languages such as
COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN
(Formula Translator) were used, and they are still used for some
applications nowadays.
◦ The most widely used second generations were
◦ Transistors were used in the circuits.
◦ For external storage magnetic tapes were used.
◦ The orientation was towards multiple users i.e. the machine was
capable to process multiple tasks concurrently.
◦ Examples: IBM 1620 –small scientific computers
◦ IBM 1401 –small to medium commercial computers
◦ IBM 7094 –large scientific computer

 Third Generation
 Also in third generation computers.
 Integrated circuits replaced transistors
 Smaller size they were capable to perform better than transistors.
 For data input and output operations monitors and keyboards replaced the
punched cards.
 For external storage magnetic disks were used.
 Sophisticated operating systems, which were capable of handling several
jobs concurrently were used.
 More advanced high level languages like PASCAL were used.
 Example
◦ IBM system /360 was the dominant
◦ IBM 1130

 Fourth Generation
 Fourth Generation computers are the modern day computers. The Size
started to go down with the improvement in the intenerated circuits. Very
Large Scale (VLSI) and Ultra Large scale (ULSI) ensured that millions of
components could be fit into a small chip. It reduced the size and price of
the computers at the same time increasing power, efficiency and reliability.
 The circuits used VLSI and microprocessors of virtually microscopic size,
which led to drastic cut on the size of computer.
 The input output devices were the same monitors, keyboard, printer etc.
 Micro computers have evolved.
 Magnetic disks were the primary devices used for external storage.
 The use of special software for maintaining large data bases
became popular.
 The application software for micro computer essentially became popular in
this generation.
◦ Example of computers: IBM System


 The fifth Generation computer
 These computers will be under Artificial Intelligence (AI),
they will be able to take commands in a audio visual way
and carry out instructions. Many of the operations which
require low human intelligence will be performed by these
computers.
 Parallel Processing is coming and showing the possibility
that the power of many CPU's can be used side by side, and
computers will be more powerful than those under central
processing. Advances in Super Conductor technology will
greatly improve the speed of information traffic. Future
looks bright for the computers.
 These computers will have:
◦ Intelligent processors, i.e., processors which can draw inferences.

 Measurement of computers quality and performance
 Speed :quality and performance of a computer is

measured primarily by its speed.
 Storage media size: as the size of secondary storage increases,
the quality and performance of the computer is also
increased.
 Microprocessor: microprocessors differ in type, quality, power, and
capability.
 Memory size (Size of RAM): as the size of RAM increases, the
efficiency and quality of a computer also increases
 Efficiency: the term efficiency is concerned with the time
taken to perform a specified task. If computer A takes 10
minutes to accomplish a certain task and computer B takes 5
minutes to perform the same task, then computer B has
better quality and performance than computer .

 Types of computers
 We can classify computers based on the following criteria
 Purpose
 Method of operation (working principle)
 Physical size, price, capacity and performance
 Classification by purpose of application
 Computers can be applied or used for different purposes.
Based upon their application.
 special purpose
 general purpose computers.

 Special purpose computers
 They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is
their components and their functions are uniquely adapted to
a specific situation involving specific application. Example:
 The public telephone box
 Traffic control system
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market)
 Pocket-calculators etc.
 Counters
 Most analog computers are special purpose

computers

 General purpose computers
 They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store
program concept”. A program or set of instructions designed to solve a
problem is read and stored into the memory and then executed by the
computer one by one. General computers are more flexible and versatile.
Examples
 Micro computers
 Mini computers
 Mainframe
 Super computers etc.

 Classification by the method of operation (processing)
 Computers are classified by the type of data they are designed to
process. They are classified into three
 Analog ,Digital and Hybrid Computers
Analog computer
 Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with
continues variables, they don’t compute directly with
numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical
magnitude such as pressure, temperature, voltage, current
etc.
 Examples: Thermometer ,Voltmeter, Speedometer
 Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the
flow of pumped fuel into two measurements the price of the
delivered gas and the quantity of pumped fuel.
 They are special purpose computers.
 However, analog computers have limited accuracy

 Digital Computers
 Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate
by counting rather than measuring. They operate directly up
on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or
other special symbols.
 Examples: Abacus, Desk & pocket computers
 The general purpose computers
 Digital computers have very high accuracy and speed than
the analog ones.

Hybrid computers
 The best features of analog and digital computers can be
combined into a single device to form a hybrid computer.
A hybrid computer processes the information by
collecting input data with analog method, converts it into
digital quantities, processes the digital values and
converts the output from digital to analog form. Example:
 In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may
measure a patient’s heart function, temperature and other
vital signs. These measurements may then be converted
into numbers and supplied to a digital component in the
system. This component is used to monitor the patient’s
vital signs and to send an immediate signal to the nurse’s
station if any abnormal readings are detected.

 Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance
 At this stage, by a computer, we mean a general-purpose digital
computer. General-purpose digital computers are then classified
as follows by their capacity and size.
 Super computer: is the fastest, largest and most potential type of
computer. They are used to process huge amount of data and are
commonly used in space technology centers, meteorology stations,
and astronomical observatories, intercontinental communications,
airline organizations .Example of super computers are Cray, IBM
and Hewlett-Packard.
 Mainframe computers: - Smaller than in size and capacity, lower in
speed & memory capacity than the super computers. However
they are multi-user systems and handle hundreds of users,
usually used in large organizations.
 Mini computers: - have relatively lower speed, can handle multi-
users, are smaller in size than the mainframe computers Mini
computers are used in small organizations
 Micro computers: - are the most widely used type of computers. A
small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.
Microcomputers : are sometimes referred as personal computers.

 Micro computer are the smallest computer system. There size
range from calculator to desktop size. Its CPU is
microprocessor
 They are further classified into
◦ Desktop Computers
◦ Laptop(notebook) Computers
◦ Handheld Computers(PDAs)
◦ Workstation
◦ Palmtop

 Desktop Computers
◦ Today the Desktop computers are the most popular computer systems. These
desktop computers are also known as personal computers or simply PCs
 Laptop Computers
◦ Laptop computers are portable computers. They are lightweight
computers with a thin screen. They are also called as notebook
computers because of their small size. They can operate on
batteries and hence are very popular with travelers.
 Handheld Computers
◦ Handheld Devices are small in size (Small Screen, small
Keyboard).
◦ Handheld devices are Personal digital assistants(PDA) ,cellular
phone.
◦ PDA offer a collection of application software for word
Processing, spread sheets, games.
◦ Cellular phone provide the telephone capability
◦ Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard
problem by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen

 Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A
workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a
more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a
higher-quality monitor
 A Palmtop PC was an about pocket calculator-sized,
battery-powered PC in a horizontal clamshell design
with integrated keyboard and display.
 A small computer that literally fits in your palm

 Application areas of computer
 Computer is applicable on many areas
A.Commercial and business area application
 Covers the use of computer to clerical,adminstration,production and business use
Text processing
Accounting and finical management
Inventory control
Database management
Statically analysis

 B) scientific, engineering and research application
◦ Computer are used for scientific research complex
mathematical calculation, design work analysis and control of
physical system
◦ Space technology
◦ Meteorological observation system
◦ Astronomical invitation
◦ Design of machine
◦ Control of manufacturing process
◦ Nuclear control system

 Limitation of computers
◦ Computers have the following limitations:-
◦ Cannot decide how to be programmed.
◦ Does not provide its own inputs, unless people provide with
the input
◦ Interpretation of data and implementation of decision is left for
human beings
◦ Unlike human beings, computers are incapable to:
 Think
 Create
 Judge and
 Motivated

 Keywords
 A teleconference is a telephone meeting among two or more participants
involving technology more sophisticated than a simple two-way phone
connection.
 video and audio conferencing Is a connection that connect you and one
person for sharing ideas, information and windows program by using video
and audio.

Chapter 3 - Organization of a computer
system
 Contents
◦ Introduction to Computer Systems
◦ Computer hardware
◦ Computer software
◦ Operating systems
 At end of this chapter student will able to Describe basic
characteristics of components of a computer system, Illustrate
and analyze basics of Computer architecture.

 System is a group of components, consisting of subsystems or
procedures that work in a coordinated fashion to achieve
some objective.
 A computer system is composed of both hardware and
software components.
 A Computer System
User
◦ Hardware
◦ Software
◦ User Software
Hardware

Why Study Computer Architecture ( system)?
 User
◦ Understand system capabilities and limitations
◦ Improve communications with information technology professionals
 Systems Analyst
◦ Determine feasibility and define and document user requirements.
◦ Specify computer systems to meet application requirements
 Programmer
◦ Create efficient application software for specific processing needs.
 System Administrator / Manager
◦ Install, configure, maintain, and upgrade computer systems
◦ Optimize system performance
◦ Ensure system security
 Web Designer
◦ Optimize customer accessibility to Web services
◦ System administration of Web servers
◦ Design efficient Web pages

◦ Computer Hardware
 computer hardware is the physical equipment of the computer such as the
system unit, mouse, keyboard, monitor etc and you see and touch.
 Hardware can be classified as:
◦ Input Hardware
◦ Processing hardware
◦ Storage Hardware(Primary & Secondary)
◦ Output devices

 Input Devices
 To put information into the computer or convert any format of information
in a format that can be processed by computer. hardware device that sends
information into the CPU. Input Devices – “How to tell it what to do”.
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joystick
 Touch Sensitive Screen
 Light Pen
 Microphone
 Digital Stills Camera
 Bar Code Reader
 Scanner
 Webcam
 Digital Video
 Fax machine

 Keyboard
 The Key board is used for typing text into the computer. It is also known as
typewriter.
 Enhanced or Extended keyboard – Typically laid out in the QWERTY fashion; connected to
the computer by a cable
 Cordless keyboard – Uses infrared or radio wave signals
 Types of Enhanced or Extended Keyboards.
 101-key Enhanced keyboard
 104-key Windows keyboard
 82-key Apple standard keyboard
 108-key Apple Extended keyboard
 The keys are categorized as :
◦ Alphanumeric keys, including letters & numbers.
◦ Punctuation keys, such as colon (:), semicolon (;) Question mark (?),
Single & double quotes (‗,‖)
◦ Special keys such as arrow keys, control keys, shift key,alt key, HOME,
END, Del,Esc,Insert,Home,page up, down etc.
◦ Functional key (F1----F12)
◦ Navigation ( up, left, right and down) key
◦ Numeric key( number key)
◦ Windows key (logo)

 How keyboard works
◦ Keyboard controller detects a key press
◦ Controller sends a code to the CPU
 Code represents the key pressed
◦ Controller notifies the operating system
◦ Operating system responds
◦ Controller repeats the letter if held
◦ The key matrix is the grid of circuits underneath the keys.
◦ Pressing the key bridges the gap in the circuit, allowing a tiny amount of current
to flow through.
◦ The most common keyboard connectors are:
 5-pin DIN (Deustche Industrie Norm) connector
 6-pin IBM PS/2 mini-DIN connector
 4-pin USB (Universal Serial Bus) connector
 internal connector (for laptops)
Normal DIN connectors are rarely used anymore. Most computers use the
PS/2 connector; but an increasing number of new systems are dropping
the PS/2 connectors in favor of USB. No matter which type of connector
is used, two principal elements are sent through the connecting cable.
The first is power for the keyboard. Keyboards require a small amount
of power, typically about 5 volts, in order to function. The cable also
carries the data from the keyboard to the computer

 Mouse: A mouse is an input device used to move the cursor
on the computer’s screen when it is moved on a surface and
give different commands to the computer by clicking over
user interface components. The mouse is an input device
designed to manipulate objects on the computer screen and
assist you, the user, in interacting with the computer.
 Types of Mice
◦ Wired (Wheel) mouse
◦ Cordless or wireless mouse
 Wired (Wheel) mouse-they use wire or cable connects to PS/2
port or USB port communicate with computer system.
 Example wired mouse
 Mechanical mouse
 Optical mouse
 Trackball mouse
 Track pad mouse

Operating a mechanical mouse.
 When open the retaining plate there is a ball.
 Peek inside and you should see three rollers. One is located directly
toward the front or back of the mouse, one is located on one side
and the third roller is positioned at 45 degrees.
 As the ball rolls along the surface, it moves these rollers.
 Direction and angle of movement directly affect the speed at which
the roller rotate.
 An LED(light emitting diode) shines a light past the wheel.
 A photosensitive receptor picks up the light from the LED.
 The wheel generates a flickering light which causes the receptor to
generate a series of electronic pulse.
 The drivers installed in the computer keeps track of the number of
pulse generated by each roller and uses the information to move the
cursor.
 Mechanical mouse : Ball------ contact with--- roller—attached to –
Shaft generate signal pulse-- Transmitted to--- Logic chip--Translate
the pulse into binary data

Optical Mouse
 Optical mouse differs significantly from mechanical is it
has no ball.
 It uses a pair of LEDs, a pair of optical sensors.
 The LED shine down on the mouse pad and reflect back to
photoreceptors on the base of the device.
 When the device move, the reflections of light coming back
provide the light pulse that the mouse drivers use for
tracking.
 Optical mice have several benefits
over wheeled(mechanical ) mice:
 No moving parts means less wear and a lower chance of
failure.
 There's no way for dirt to get inside the mouse and interfere
with the tracking sensors.
 They don't require a special surface, such as a mouse pad.

Trackball
 Basically a stationary mouse.
 Perform same function as a mouse while staying in one place.
 Is an upside-down mouse.
 Perform in the same manner, except that the ball is positioned at the
top of the device.
Track pads
 Stationary pointing device
 Small plastic rectangle
 Finger moves across the pad
 Pointer moves with the pointer
 Popular on laptops
Cordless(wireless) mouse – Uses infrared signals to connect to the
computer’s IrDA(Infrared Data Association) port; it must be within
sight of the receiving port

 pins have the following functions (refer to the above photo for pin numbering):
1. +5 volts (to power the chip and LEDs)
2. Clock
3. Ground
4. Data
 The data is sent from the mouse to the computer serially on the
data line, with the clock line pulsing to tell the computer
where each bit starts and stops.
 Mouse buttons enable the user to initiate actions.
◦ Clicking (left-, right-, or double-clicking) allows the user to select
an item on the screen or open a program or dialog box
◦ Click and drag – Holding down the left mouse button

and moving the mouse enables the user to move objects
on the screen.

Joystick & Game pad:
 The joystick is a rotary lever. Similar to an aircraft's control
stick, it enables you to move within the screen's
environment, and is widely used in the computer games
industry.
Touch Sensitive Screen
 A Touch Sensitive Screen is a pointing device that enables
the user to interact with the computer by touching the
screen.
Light Pen:
 A Light Pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen and is
connected to a VDU. The tip of the light pen contains a
light-sensitive element which, when placed against the
screen, detects the light from the screen enabling the
computer to identify the location of the pen on the screen.

Voice Data Entry Device(microphone):
 This system accepts the spoken word as input data or
commands. However, simple commands from one user can
be used to control machines.
Digital Stills Camera
 a camera that encodes digital images digitally
Bar Code Reader
 is an electronic device for reading printed barcodes. Like a
flatbed scanner, Additionally, nearly all barcode readers
contain decoder circuitry analyzing the barcode's image
data provided by the sensor and sending the barcode's
content to the scanner's output port.
 You might have seen bar codes on goods in supermarkets,
in libraries and on magazines. Bar codes provide a quick
method of recording the sale of items.

Scanner:
 It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on
paper and translate into Digital form.
Webcam
 A camera connected to a computer or server that allows anyone
connected to the Internet to view still pictures or motion video of a
user.
Digital Video
 A video capture board transforms analog video into digital video.
 Digital video cameras use digital technologies to record video
images.
Fax machine
 A device that can send or receive pictures and text over a telephone line.
Fax machines work by digitizing an image -- dividing it into a grid of dots.
Each dot is either on (1)or off(0), depending on whether it is black or
white.

Processing hardware(CPU)
 The processor the short form for microprocessor also called the CPU of the
computer is the brain of the computer which performs all arithmetic, logical
and control operations. The function of the CPU is to execute programs stored
in the main memory by fetching instructions, examining them, and executing
them one after the other.
 Set of electronic circuitry that executes stored program instructions.
 Responsible for controlling all activities of the computer system.
CPU - Architecture
 The CPU consists of a control unit, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), registers
and System Clock
Control Unit
Tasks carried out by a CU are listed below:
 decoding the instructions within a computer
 sequencing the reading and writing of data within the CPU and externally
on the data bus
 controlling the sequence in which instructions are executed
 controlling the operations performed by the ALU.

ALU (arithmetic and logic unit)
 The arithmetic logical unit (ALU) is responsible for performing arithmetic (+,-, *,
÷) and logical (>, <, =, ≠, AND, OR, NOT) operations and comparisons of data.
 ALU can only do one thing at a time but can work very, very fast
CPU - Registers
 The CPU also contains a small high speed memory located inside CPU hold small
units of program instructions and data immediately before, during, and after
execution by the CPU.
Instruction register
◦ Holds instruction currently being executed
Data register
◦ Holds data waiting to be processed
◦ Holds results from processing
System Clock
 System clock produces pulses at a fixed rate
 Each pulse is one Machine Cycle
 One program instruction may actually be several instructions to the
CPU
 Each CPU instruction will take one pulse

Communications
devices
Processing device
Control Arithmetic/
unit logic unit
Input devices Register storage area
Output devices
Memory
Secondary
storage

Execution of an Instruction
 Machine cycle
◦ Instruction phase
◦ Execution phase
 Instruction phase
◦ Step 1: Fetch instruction
◦ Step 2: Decode instruction
 Execute phase
◦ Step 3: Execute instruction
◦ Step 4: Store results

Executing Programs
 CU gets an instruction and places it in memory
 CU decodes the instruction
 CU notifies the appropriate part of hardware to take action
 Control is transferred to the appropriate part of hardware
 Task is performed
 Control is returned to the CU
Machine Cycle
I-time
 CU fetches an instruction from memory and puts it into a register
 CU decodes the instruction and determines the memory location of
the data required
E-time
 Execution
◦ CU moves the data from memory to registers in the ALU
◦ ALU is given control and executes the instruction
◦ Control returns to the CU
 CU stores the result of the operation in memory or in a register

Processing device
Control unit ALU

(2) Decode (3) Execute
I-time E-time
Registers (4) Store

(1) Fetch
Memory

Types of Microprocessors
Intel
◦ Pentium
◦ Celeron
◦ Xeon and Itanium
Intel-compatible
◦ Cyrix
◦ AMD
Building a Better Microprocessor
 The more functions that are combined on a
microprocessor
◦ The faster the computer runs
◦ The cheaper it is to make
◦ The more reliable it is

Output devices
 Output is data that has been processed into useful form, now called Information.
Output devices display information that has been held or generated within a
computer. Convert information processed by CPU to human understandable format
either visually or in any format.
 Output devices are peripheral devices that enable us to view or hear the computer’s
processed data.
 Types of Output
◦ Visual output – Text, graphics, and video
 Hard copy: Printed on paper or other permanent media
 Soft copy: displayed on screen or by other secondary storage device
◦ Audio output – Sounds, music, and synthesized speech
 Some examples are shown below
 VDU or Monitor
 Printer
 Speakers
 Robot
 Synthesized Voice
 Plotters

Visual Display Units (VDU)
 Also called monitors are used to visually interface with the computer and are
similar in appearance to a television
 A monitor is a peripheral device which displays computer output on a
screen.
 Screen output is referred to as soft copy.
 Types of monitors:
◦ Cathode-ray tube (CRT)
◦ Liquid Crystal Display (LCD or flat-panel)
 Cathode-ray tube (CRT)
 The filaments at the back of the cathode tube shoot a beam of electrons to
the screen at the front of the tube
 This screen is coated with phosphor that glows when struck by the
electron beam.
 Resemble televisions
 Use picture tube technology
 Less expensive than a LCD monitor
 Take up more desk space and use more energy
than LCD monitors

 CRT:
◦ Glass tube that is narrow at one end and opens to a flat screen at the
other end.
◦ Narrow end contains electron guns.
 Single gun for monochrome and three guns for color.
 Display screen is covered with tiny phosphor dots that emit light when
struck by the electron gun.
 Monochrome: Display two colors, one for the background and one for the
foreground.
 Gray-Scale: A special type of monochrome monitor capable of displaying
different shades of gray.
 Color: Can display anywhere from 16 to over 1 million different colors.
Sometimes called RGB monitors.

LCD(Liquid crystal display)
 An LCD panel produces an image using a liquid crystal
material made of large, easily polarized molecules .
 one of several types of “flat-panel” displays
 forms output by solidifying crystals and “backlighting” the
image with a light source.
 TV sets are CRTs and many desktop monitors use this
technology
 LCD is primarily used for laptops and other portable devices

Monitor Specifications
◦ Screen size – The diagonal measurement of the screen surface in inches
(15, 17, 19, 21)
◦ Resolution – The sharpness of the image determined by the number of
horizontal and vertical dots (pixels) that the screen can display (800 x
600, 1024 x 768, 1600 x 1200)
◦ Refresh rate – The speed at which the screen is redrawn (refreshed) and
measured in Hertz (Hz) (60Hz, 75Hz)

Printers:
 Are devices used to print out information that is in the
computer on to paper. By printing you create what is known
as a 'hard copy'.
 Characteristics of printer:
◦ quality of type
◦ speed
◦ fonts
◦ graphics
◦ impact or non-impact
Types of Printers
 Inkjet printer
◦ also called a bubble-jet, makes characters by inserting dots of ink onto paper.
◦ Letter-quality printouts


Laser printer
◦ works like a copier
◦ Quality determined by dots per inch (dpi) produced
◦ Color printers available
Speakers:
 Speakers also produce an analogue output. The audio
program inside the boundary converts the digital
encoding of the sound to a series of electrical pulses
that are sent to the speaker.
 one components are needed:
◦ Sound card – Plays contents of digitized recordings

Robotics
 Robots can be both an input an an output form of information to the
computer.
 Depending on what they are designed for they either take
information from the computer to do something, or they can gather
information using sensors and cameras to feed to the computer.
Speech synthesis
 is the artificial production of human speech. A computer system used for this
purpose is called a speech synthesizer, and can be implemented in software or
hardware products. A text-to-speech (TTS) system converts normal language
text into speech.
Plotters:
 A device that draws pictures on paper based on commands from a computer. .
A plotter is a printer that uses a pen that moves over a large revolving sheet of
paper. They are used in engineering applications where precision is mandatory.
A plotter is a printer that uses a pen that moves over a large revolving sheet of
paper

Storage media
 The memory of a computer is the part used to hold /store/ programs and
data.
 The memory of a computer is constructed from microchips.
 A computer contains two types of main memory, Random Access Memory
(RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM). The cycle (input - processing -
output) would not be possible without a holding place for the instructions
and data that the processor (CPU) can easily reach. This holding place is
known as memory.
 There are two basic types of memory:
◦ Primary (Main)memory
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Read Only Memory (ROM).
◦ Secondary Storage Devices
 They work in different ways and perform distinct functions
 CPU Registers
 Cache Memory

RAM – memory
Hard Drive – storage
 Storage, also known as mass media or auxiliary storage, refers to the various media on which a computer
system can store data.
◦ Data that will eventually be used
◦ Long-term
 Storage devices hold programs and data in units called files.
 Memory is a temporary workplace where the computer transfers the contents of a file while it is being used.
◦ Data that will be used in the near future
◦ Faster access than storage
 Registers: Data immediately related to the operation being executed
◦ Faster access than memory
Cache memory
Cache memory is faster than main memory, but slower than the CPU and its registers.
Cache memory, which is normally small in size, is placed between the CPU and main
memory
compiled by Mebratu B.
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Cache
 Small block of very fast temporary memory
 Speed up data transfer
 Instructions and data used most frequently or most recently
Types of Cache
 Internal cache
◦ Level 1 (L1)
◦ Built into microprocessor
◦ Up to 128KB
 External cache
◦ Level 2 (L2)
◦ Separate chips
◦ 256KB or 512 KB
◦ SRAM technology
◦ Cheaper and slower than L1
◦ Faster and more expensive than memory

 Primary Memory
 The primary memory of a computer is the part used to hold /store/ programs and
data.
 Memory can be thought of as a set of pigeon holes or cells with each one
having a unique address
 Each pigeon hole can store 8 bits of data.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
 It is the primary memory that holds data and instructions while the computer is in use.
 It is described as volatile memory as the contents of RAM chips can be lost when the
computer is turned off or when new data is being written to RAM while other data is
being processed.
 It can be written to and read from type of memory. Important to remember that if you do
not save the information in RAM to a storage device (such as a floppy disk or hard
drive) before turning off the computer the information will be lost.
 It is a semiconductor integrated circuit on a chip.
 What’s in RAM?
◦ Operating System
◦ Program currently running
◦ Data needed by the program
◦ Intermediate results waiting to be output

Types of RAM
SRAM
 Retains contents as long as power is maintained
 Faster than DRAM
DRAM
 Must be constantly refreshed
 Used for most PC memory because of size and cost
 SDRAM
 faster type of DRAM
 Rambus DRAM
 Faster than SDRAM
 Expensive
 Adding RAM
◦ Purchase memory modules that are packaged on circuit boards
◦ SIMMS – Chips on one side
◦ DIMMS – Chips on both sides
◦ Maximum amount of RAM that can be installed is based upon the
motherboard design

Read Only Memory (ROM)
 ROM is responsible for storing permanent data and instructions.
 ROM is straighter forward than RAM. It is built in memory that
permanently stores instructions and data.
 Non-volatile
 Stores boot routine that is activated when computer is turned on
 Data and instructions can be read, but not modified
 Instructions are typically recorded at factory
 Firmware (Program instruction used frequently)
◦ Program stored in a ROM
 Boot time code, BIOS (basic input/output system)
 graphics cards, disk controllers.
 ROM Types
 There are five basic ROM types:
• PROM
• EPROM
• EEPROM
• Flash memory

 programmable read-only memory (PROM).
 Blank PROM chips coded by anyone with a special tool called a
programmer.
 PROMs can only be programmed once.
 Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) .
 EPROM chips can be rewritten many times.
 Erasing an EPROM requires a special tool that emits a certain frequency of
ultraviolet (UV) light.
 To rewrite an EPROM, you must erase it first
 The EPROM must be removed from the device it is in and placed under the
UV light of the EPROM eraser for several minutes

 programmable read-only memory (PROM).
◦ Blank PROM chips coded by anyone with a special tool called a programmer.
◦ PROMs can only be programmed once.
 Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM)

◦ EPROM chips can be rewritten many times.
◦ Erasing an EPROM requires a special tool that emits a certain frequency of
ultraviolet (UV) light.
◦ EPROMs are configured using an EPROM programmer that provides voltage at
specified levels depending on the type of EPROM used.
◦ To rewrite an EPROM, you must erase it first
◦ The EPROM must be removed from the device it is in and placed under the UV
light of the EPROM eraser for several minutes

 EEPROM(Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory ):
◦ The chip does not have to removed to be rewritten.
◦ The entire chip does not have to be completely erased to change a
specific portion of it.
◦ Changing the contents does not require additional dedicated equipment.
◦ Instead of using UV light, you can return the electrons in the cells of an
EEPROM to normal with the localized application of an electric field to
each cell. This erases the targeted cells of the EEPROM, which can then
be rewritten. EEPROMs are changed 1 byte at a time.
 Flash memory
◦ a type of EEPROM that uses in-circuit wiring to erase by applying an
electrical field to the entire chip or to predetermined sections of the chip
called blocks. Flash memory works much faster than traditional
EEPROMs because it writes data in chunks, usually 512 bytes in size,
instead of 1 byte at a time.
◦ Nonvolatile RAM
◦ Used in
 Cellular phones
 Digital cameras
 Digital music recorders
 PDAs

Secondary Storage Devices
 Storage: It is refers to the media and methods used to keep information
available for later use. Some things will be needed right away while other
won't be needed for extended periods of time. So different methods are
appropriate for different uses
 Some examples of storage devices:
◦ Magnetic Tape
◦ Floppy Disk
◦ Hard Disk
◦ Optical disk
 Compact Disk/CD : CD ROM, CD R, CD RW and DVD
 Magnetic Tapes:
 Magnetic tapes are sequential access media similar to an audio cassette and
popular form of secondary storage because of their capacity of memory
storing large amount of information and their convenience to store for a
long time.
 Floppy disks: Also called flexible or diskette are used to store programs
and data for a longer period outside the computer system.

Hard Disk
 A high capacity magnetic disk made up of metal which can be fixed in the system unit of
the computer.
 Serves as a secondary storage.
 Enables very fast accessibility of data.
 Accessing data from hard disk is faster than from floppy disks.
 The disks, which are usually grouped together into a disk pack, are separated by small
air spaces to allow access for read/write head.
Compact Disk (CD)
CD-R:
 A CD-R is highly effective for storing a large amount of data.
 CD-R can hold up to 700MB of information.
 Discs can only be written to “once”
 A CD-R is a one time recordable compact disc.
CD-RW
 A CD-RW allows you to read, write, erase and write again.
 Discs can be written to many times
 Writing takes place in a single pass of the focused laser beam.
 Overwriting and can be repeated several thousand times per disc.
 They seem the same but the recording format is quite different.

CD-ROM Discs
 CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc-Read Only Memory.
 CD-ROM drives can not write data to discs.
 They are capable of storing 650 MB of data.
 They are used for storing operating systems, large application
programs, and multimedia programs/
DVD-ROM Discs
 DVD stands for Digital Video Disc.
 DVD technology is similar to CD-ROM technology.
 DVDs are capable of storing up to 17GB of data.
 The data transfer rate of DVD drives is comparable to that of hard
disk drives.
 DVD-R and DVD-RW drives have the ability to read/write data
 DVD: used to stand for Digital Video Device or Digital Versatile
Device. DVDs are used for recording movies.

Tape Drive – Floppy Disk Drive – Hard Disk –
sequential storage random-access storage random-access storage
 Sequential – Storage devices that read and write data

in a serial (one after the other) fashion
 Random-Access – Storage devices that read and write
data without going through a sequence of locations
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Magnetic Storage Optical Storage –
CD/DVD drive
 Magnetic – Storage devices use disks or tapes that are

coated with magnetically sensitive material
 Optical – Storage devices that use laser beams to read
patterns etched into plastic disks
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Platter Read/Write
head
 Hard disks are high-speed, high-capacity storage devices.

 They contain metal disks called platters.
 They contain two or more stacked platters with read/write
heads for each side.
 Hard disks can be divided into partitions to enable computers
to work with more than one operating system.
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Floppy Disk Hard Drive CD ROM / DVD
Capacity – 720 KB to Capacity – Up to 80 GB Capacity – CD-ROM 650

1.44 MB MB; DVD 17 GB
Access Time – 6 to 12ms
Access Time – 100ms Access Time – 80 to 800ms
 A storage device’s performance is measured by:
◦ Capacity – The number of bytes of data that a device can hold
◦ Access Time – The amount of time, in milliseconds (ms), it takes the device
to begin reading data
 Secondary storage devices are also used as :
◦ Input - data and programs
◦ output - saving the results of processing
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Computer software
 Computer hardware cannot perform alone. To accomplish any
task, hardware must given a serious of instructions called
software.
 a collection of programs and routines that support the operations of
performing a task using a computer. Software also includes
documentations, rules and operational procedures. Software makes
the interface between the user and the electronic components of the
computer.
 The finite set of instructions that the computer follows to do a
given job is called program. The group of programs that the
computer needs to function is known as software.
We can classify software in two major parts
1. System Software
2. Application Software

 System software
 It controls the overall operation of the system.
 It is stored in the computer's memory and instructs the
computer to load, store, and execute an application.
 programs designed to perform tasks associated with directly
controlling and utilizing computer hardware
 They perform I/O operations on various memory locations,
and control the hardware, to make the application software do
a task
 It lays the hardware and the application software.
 Includes programs that perform the basic operations that
make a computer usable.
 It does not accomplish specific task to the user, such as
creating document or analyzing data

 Advantages of system software
 Allocation of various programs to main memory
 Loading of programs that perform routines to control
peripheral devices.
 Execution of programs
 The important categories of system software are:
a) Operating system
b) Language software
c) Utility software
 Operating system
◦ Operating system coordinates the activity between the user and the
computer. An operating system has three major functions.
 Controlling operations (control program )
 Input/output Management
 Command Processing ( command Interpreter)
 Memory management
 scheduling

Types of Operating Systems
 Operating systems can be classified by:
◦ The number of programs they can handle at a time and
◦ The number of users they serve at once at one or different stations
(i.e. terminals or micro-computers connected to a central computer).
 Single user single tasking operating systems
◦ These types of operating systems are single user or can serve only
one user at a time.
 Single user Multi task operating system
◦ Single users can use the resources of one high capacity computer for
multiple tasks.
 Multi user multi tasking Operating System
◦ It supports a number of work stations connected to a central system.
◦ A number of users can use the resources of one high capacity
computer by the help of terminals.

Utility programs:
 Used to support, enhance, or expand existing programs
in a computer system. Some of examples of the utility
programs are the following.
◦ Backup software it is a type of software which facilitate to a
user to have a recovery copy if his/her computer suddenly stop.
◦ Data recovery: it is used to restore data that has been
physically damaged or corrupted. Data can be damaged by
viruses, bad software, and hardware failure and power
fluctuation.
◦ Virus protection if there is an attack of computer viruses on
your computer system there may be a need to have antivirus
utility software.
◦ Data compression utilities remove redundant elements, gaps
and unnecessary data from the computer storage space so that
you will have enough space to work and to transport data.

Language Software.
 Is software which is used by programmers to develop
application software and translate programs to machine
code.
 Translator: -is a program that converts one or more
languages to another language. Three types of
translators are assemblers, Compilers & interpreters.
◦ Interpreter: - is a program that translates each instruction of
high level language & executes the instruction before
translating the next instruction.
◦ Assemblers: - is a program that translates assembly languages
into machine code.
◦ Compiler: - is a program that translates a high level language
into machine code. (Pascal, Fortran Cobol)

Application Software
 Is software that is designed to perform tasks for the specific area
or areas.
 Depending on their function or task they are categorized in to the
following.
1. Word Processors/ Word processing
◦ Is a computerized typewriter which permits the electronic creation,
editing, formatting, filing and printing text.
◦ Example: WordStar, WordPerfect, Microsoft word
2. Spreadsheet
◦ is an electronic worksheet display on the VDU.
◦ Until recently, financial analysis and other mathematical calculation
were done.
◦ Using the programs built-in function you can perform complicated
calculations such as net percent value, internal rates of return, and
monthly payments on a loan.
◦ Example: Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Excel, Quatropro.

3. Database management system.
 Allow you to store information on a computer, retrieve it when you
need it and update it when necessary.
 database management programs do them more quickly and easily.
 Example: You can store large mailing list, inventory record or
billing and collect information in lists stored in files and manipulate
this information, one file at a time with database management
program.
 You can record or create a database about employee information as
 Example: Dbase IV, FoxPro, Microsoft Access, SQL, Oracle.
 Other
 Graphics software:
 Presentation application software

Keywords
 Infrared Data Association, a group of device for transmitting data via
infrared light waves. This enables you to transfer data from one device to
another without any cables.
 Digitizing: The process of taking a visual image, or audio recording and
converting it to a binary form for the computer.
 Port: The pathway for data to go into and out of the computer from
external devices such as keyboards.
 Motherboard: The place where most of the electronics including the CPU
are mounted.
 Pipelining: A CPU operation in which multiple execution phases are
performed in a single machine cycle. a pipeline is the continuous and
somewhat overlapped movement of instruction to the processor or in the
arithmetic steps taken by the processor to perform an instruction.
 Bus: Physical wiring connecting computer components
 Bus width: Number of bits a bus can transfer at one time
 Fetch cycle - get an instruction from Main Memory
 Execute cycle -actually process the command

 :picture element (smallest unit of an image,
Pixel
basically a single dot on the screen).
 Resolution
◦ number of pixels in the image.
◦ Common resolution size is 1024x768 .
 Refresh rate
 how often a CRT’s electron gun rescans.
 LCD displays do not use an electron gun, so do not perform

refreshing.
 Video cards
 Interface between the monitor and the computer.
 Also called graphic adapters, video boards, graphics cards, or display

cards.

 Data and information
 Data can be defined as any type of representation of an object
or an event. Representation could be in the form of , number
, text symbols , voice, static or dynamic image and so on.
 Data process information
 Information can be defined as a processed or summarized data
for a particular analysis or decision making
 Data processing is the process of converting data in to
information

 Computing Systems Data
◦ Usually the computing systems are complex devices, dealing with a
vast array of information categories
◦ The computing systems store, present, and help us modify:
 Text
 Audio
 Images and graphics
 Video
 Computing systems are finite machines. They store a
limited amount of information, even if the limit is very
big.
 The information can be represented in one or two ways: analog or
digital.
◦ Analog data is a continuous representation, analogous to the actual
information it represents.
◦ Digital data is a discrete representation, breaking the information up into
separate (discrete) elements.

Representation of Information inside a Computer
 Digital Computers use Binary number system to
represent all types of information inside the computers.
Binary number system is suitable for this purpose due
to following reasons:
◦ Electronic components in digital computers operate in binary
mode. A switch is either on (1) or off (0); a transistor is either
conducting (1) or non-conducting(0).
◦ Computers have to handle only two digits (bits) rather than 3.
◦ They are also far more reliable when they have to represent
one out of two possible values.
◦ Because the electronic signals are easier to maintain if they
carry only binary data.
◦ Everything that can be done with decimal system can also be
done using a binary system

◦ Binary information is stored in memory or processor registers
◦ Registers contain either data or control information
 Data are numbers and other binary-coded information
 Control information is a bit or a group of bits used to specify the
sequence of command signals
◦ Data types found in the registers of digital computers
 Numbers used in arithmetic computations
 Letters of the alphabet used in data processing
 Other discrete symbols used for specific purposes
◦ All types of data, except binary numbers, are represented in
binary-coded form

 Unit of data representation
 We typically write binary numbers as a sequence of bits
 Computers only understand the electronic signals or binary
•Bit: a binary digit (0 or 1)
•Byte: 8 bits , 28= 256 different states
Nibble: 4 bits. 2 nibbles = 1 byte
Word: 8-64 bits (1 to 8 bytes). The number of bits (word length) which
can be processed by a computer in a single step (e.g., 32 or 64.
Depends on machine!
The word size in any given computer is fixed.
Example 16-bit word
every word (memory location) can hold a 16-bit pattern, with
each bit either 0 or 1.
How many distinct patterns are there in a 16-bit word?
• Each bit has 2 possible values: 0 or 1
1 bit has 2 distinct patterns: 0, 1
• With 2 bits, each position has 2 possible values: 00, 01, 10, 11
22= 4 distinct bit patterns

 In general, for n bits (a word of length n) we have 2n
distinct bit patterns
 Basic storage unit in computer system
 Kilobyte: 210 bytes = 1024 bytes =103 bytes
 Example: 3 KB = 3 * 103 bytes
 Megabyte: 220 bytes 106 bytes
 Example: 3 MB = 3 * 106 bytes
 Gigabyte: 230 bytes = 109 bytes
 Example: 3 GB = 3 * 109 bytes
 Terabyte: 240 bytes = 1012 bytes
 Example: 3 TB = 3 * 1012 bytes

The Binary System
 Computers store information (data of all types – numbers, characters, sound,
pictures, …) in Binary format i.e. base 2.
 i.e. 0 or 1
 Used because computers can only store and understand 2 states:
 i.e. whether a circuit has current flowing or not / circuit is closed or open / voltage is high
or low
Representing text
 A common way to represent text is to agree on a unique code for every
symbol (e.g. for every letter, punctuation mark or number) that needs to
be presented. Each code consists of a fixed-length sequence of bits
 A word can then be ‘written’ by determining the code for each letter
and stringing them together.
 The most well-known code that is used in this way is the ASCII
 (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). It uses 8-bit
strings to represent the English alphabet

Representing images, video
 Images are also encoded using bit patterns. Generally
an image is divided into many small picture elements
(pixels), and the appearance of each pixel is then
encoded in binary form. The collection of these
encoded pixels is known as the bitmap of the image.
 A simple black and white image, for example, can be
easily represented using a single bit for each pixel.
 A color image usually uses three bytes to represent a
single pixel. For example, computers frequently use a
combination of red, green and blue light to represent a
wide spectrum of color (the RGB color model).
 A graphic image can be represented by a list of pixels

Representing sound
 In order to store sound on your computer, the
analogue sound signal needs to be converted into a
digital format. Typically the amplitude of the sound
wave is checked and recorded at regular time
intervals.
 These values can then be stored in binary form and
used to re-construct the initial wave at a later stage.

Number System Basics
Number systems, as we use them, consist of
a basic set of digits (or letters); example Z = {0, 1, 2,…, 9}
A base (how many digits); example B = Z = 10
Useful Number Systems for Computers
name base digits
binary 2 0,1
octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,
8,9
hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,
8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
 Decimal number system
◦ Base-10
◦ Each position is a power of 10
◦ Each position to the left of a digit Increases by a power of 10.
◦ Each position to the right of a digit decreases by a power of 10.
◦ Example 4769210=2*100+9*101+6*102+7*103+4*104
◦ Binary number system
◦ Base-2
◦ Built from ones and zeros
◦ Each position to the left of a digit increases by a power of 2.
101110012=1*20+0*21+0*22+1*23+1*24+1*25+0*26+1*27=1
8510

◦ Octal number system
◦ Base-8
◦ Each position to the left of a digit increases by a power of 8.
 Example 124038=3*80+0*81+4*82+2*83+1*84=537910
◦ Hexadecimal number system
◦ Base-16
◦ Each position to the left of a digit increases by a power
of 16.
◦ Each position to the right of a digit decreases by a
power of 16.
 Example FB40A16=10*160+0*161+4*162+11*163+15*164=1,029,130
10

◦ Decimal-to-Binary Conversions
Repeated division
37 / 2 = 18 remainder 1 (binary number will end with 1) : LSB
18 / 2 = 9 remainder 0
1 / 2 = 0 remainder 1 (binary number will start with 1) : MSB
Read the result upward to give an answer of 3710 = 1001012

◦ Exercise Convert decimal to binary
◦ A, 213 B,9 C,67 D,99 E,252 F, 837.
◦ Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
A, 1011.1012 = (1 x 23) + (0 x 22)+ (1 x 21) + (1 x 2o) + (1 x 2-1) + (0 x 2-2) + (1
x 2-3)
= 810+ 0 + 210 + 110 + 0.510 + 0 + 0.12510
= 11.62510
B, 0.11001 2 = ?10
 0.11001 = 1 · 2-1+ 1 · 2-2+ 0 · 2-3+ 0 · 2-4+ 1 · 2-5= 1 · 0.5 + 1 · 0.25 + 0 · 0.125
+ 0 · 0.0625 + 1 · 0.03125
 = 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.03125 = 0.7812510
 C, 1110002== ? 10
 0.20+0.21+0.22+1.23+1.24+1.25 =0+0+0+8+16+32=5610

 Hex-to-Decimal Conversion
2AF16 = (2 x 162) + (10 x 161) + (15 x 16o)
= 51210 + 16010 + 1510
= 68710
 Decimal-to-Hex Conversion
42310 / 16 = 26 remainder 7 (Hex number will end with 7) : LSB
2610 / 16 = 1 remainder 10
110 / 16 = 0 remainder 1 (Hex number will start with 1) MSB
Read the result upward to give an answer of 42310 = 1A716
 Hex-to-Binary Conversion
 Binary-to-Hex Conversion
9F216 = 9 F 2
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 02 = 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
= 1001 1111 0010 3 A 6

= 1001111100102 = 3A616

 Let's express the decimal number
1341 in octal notation. Quotient Remainder –
1341/8 = 167 5
167/8 = 20 7
20/8 = 2 4
2/8 = 0 2
(Stop when the quotient is 0) 2 4 7 5 (OCT; Base 8)
 Each octal digit corresponds to three binary digits
 Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to four binary digits
 Rather than specifying numbers in binary form, refer to
them in octal or hexadecimal and reduce the number of
digits by 1/3 or ¼, respectively

 Comparison of number system.
Decimal
 dual octal hexadecimal
0 0000000 0 0
1 0000001 1 1
2 0000010 2 2
3 0000011 3 3
4 00000100 4 4
5 0000101 5 5
6 0000110 6 6
7 0000111 7 7
8 0001000 10 8
9 0001001 11 9
10 0001010 12 A
11 0001011 13 B
12 0001100 14 C
13 0001101 15 D
14 0001110 16 E
15 0001111 17 F
 Exercise 2
 Binary to decimal
 1. 11001011 2. 00110101 3. 10000011 4. 10001111 5.
1110001
Decimal to binary
 1. 213 2. 9 3. 67 4. 99 5. 23
 Binary to hex
 1. 1100110 2. 11110001 3. 00110001 4. 11000010 5.
10100100
 Hex to binary
 1. 0x45 2. 0xFA 3. 0x5D 4. 0x9 5. 0x03
 Decimal to hex
 1. 233 2. 21 3. 9 4. 75 5. 188
 Hex to decimal
 1. 0x5A 2. 0xCC 3. 0x97 4. 0x40 5. 0x07

Coding method
 Character Codes-Representation of alphanumeric characters in
bits 0 and 1 is done by character codes. There are three widely
used character codes:
◦ Binary Coded Decimal(BCD)
◦ American standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
◦ Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code(EBCDIC)
 Binary-Coded-Decimal Code(BCD)
 In this system, numbers are represented in a decimal form, however
each decimal digit is encoded using a four bit binary number
 Each digit of a decimal number is represented by its binary equivalent
8 7 4 (Decimal)
1000 0111 0100 (BCD)

 Only the four bit binary numbers from 0000 through 1001 are used
 Comparison of BCD and Binary
13710 = 100010012 (Binary) - require only 8 bits
13710 = 0001 0011 0111BCD (BCD) - require 12 bits

 An example: The following is a 16 bit number
encoded in packed BCD format: 01010110
10010011
 This is converted to a decimal number as follows:
0101 0110 1001 0011
5 6 9 3
 The value is 5693 decimal
 Another example: The same number in unpacked
BCD (requires 32 bits)
00000101 00000110 00001001 00000011
5 6 9 3

 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
 Represents each character in a standard character set as a single
byte binary code.
 The standard code form that most PCs use to allow for
communication between systems.
 Usually uses a 7 bit binary code so can store 128 different
characters and simple communications protocols.
 Insufficient for all characters on a standard keyboard plus
control codes.
 Can be extended (extended ASCII) to use 8 bits (so can store 256
characters) to encode Latin language characters.
 Some important things to note about ASCII code:
 1) The numeric digits, 0-9, are encoded in sequence
starting at 30h
 2) The upper case alphabetic characters are sequential
beginning at 41h
 3) The lower case alphabetic characters are sequential
beginning at 61h

 Conversion Between ASCII and BCD.
◦ Conversion between an ASCII encoded digit and an unpacked
BCD digit can be accomplished by
◦ adding or subtracting 30h. Subtract 30h from an ASCII digit to
get BCD, or add 30h to a BCD digit to get ASCII.
◦ Example: 1234 is stored as 31 32 33 34H
◦ ASCII for 1 is 31H, for 2 is 32H, etc.
◦ • BCD representation
◦ Unpacked BCD
 Example: 1234 is stored as 01 02 03 04H
◦ Packed BCD
 Saves space by packing two digits into a byte
 Example: 1234 is stored as 12 34H

 The extended version of the ASCII character set is not
enough for international use.
 The Unicode character set uses 16 bits per character.
Therefore, the Unicode character set can represent 216,
or over 65 thousand, characters.
 Unicode was designed to be a superset of ASCII. That
is, the first 256 characters in the Unicode character set
correspond exactly to the extended ASCII character set.

 Fixed Precision and Overflow.
 Numbers in computers are typically represented using a fixed number of
bits. These sizes are typically 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits and 80 bits.
These sizes are generally a multiple of 8, as most computer memories are
organized on an 8 bit byte basis. Numbers in which a specific number of
bits are used to represent the value are called fixed precision numbers.
 For example, there are 256 possible combinations of 8 bits, therefore an 8
bit number can represent 256 distinct numeric values and the range is
typically considered to be 0-255. Any number larger than 255 can’t be
represented using 8 bits. Similarly, 16 bits allows a range of 0-65535.
 When fixed precision numbers are used, the concept of overflow must be
considered. An overflow occurs when the result of a calculation can’t be
represented with the number of bits available. For example when adding
the two eight bit
 quantities: 150 + 170, the result is 320. This is outside the range 0-255, and
so the result can’t be represented using 8 bits. The result has overflowed
the available range.
 The overflowed result on overflow register

Representation of negative numbers
 When a fixed precision binary number is used to hold only
positive values, it is said to be unsigned. In this case, the range
of positive values that can be represented is 0 -- 2n-1, where n
is the number of bits used. It is also possible to represent
signed (negative as well as positive) numbers in binary.
 For N bits, can represent the signed integers
-(2(N-1) - 1) to + (2(N-1) +1)

 There are a number of schemes for representing signed
numbers in binary format.
◦ sign-magnitude representation
◦ the twos-complement representation.

Sign-Magnitude Representation
 In this representation, the leftmost bit of a binary code represents the sign
of the value:
◦ 0 for positive,
◦ 1 for negative;
the remaining bits represent the numeric value.
 To Compute negative values using Sign/Magnitude (signmag)
representation.
Begin with the binary representation of the positive value, then flip the
leftmost zero bit.
Ex 1. Find the signmag representation of -610
Step1: find binary representation using 8 bits
610 = 000001102
Step2: if the number is a negative number flip left most bit
10000110
So: -610 = 100001102 (in 8-bit sign/magnitude form)

Ex 3. Find the signmag representation of 7010
Step 1: find binary representation using 8 bits
7010 = 010001102
Step 2: if the number is a negative number flip left most bit
01000110 (no flipping, since it is +ve)
So: 7010 = 010001102 (in 8-bit sign/magnitude form)
 Two’s Complement Representation
◦ To Compute negative values using two’s Complement
representation, begin with the binary representation of the
positive value, complement (flip each bit if it is 0 make it 1 and
visa versa) the entire positive number, and then add one.

Ex. Find the two’s complement representation of
–610
Step1: find binary representation in 8 bits
610 = 000001102
Step 2: Complement the entire positive number, and then add
one
00000110
(complemented) -> 11111001
(add one) -> + 1
11111010
So: -610 = 111110102 (in 2's complement form, using any of
above methods)

 Floating Point Numbers
◦ Now you've seen unsigned and signed integers. In real life we also need
to be able represent numbers with fractional parts (like: -12.5 & 45.39).
◦ Called Floating Point numbers
◦ In the decimal system, a decimal point (radix point) separates
the whole numbers from the fractional part
◦ Examples:
37.25 ( whole = 37, fraction = 25/100)
For example, 37.25 can be analyzed as:
101 100 10-1 10-2
Tens Units Tenths Hundredths
3 7 2 5
37.25 = (3 x 10) + (7 x 1) + (2 x 1/10) + (5 x 1/100)

 The binary equivalent of a floating point number can be determined
by computing the binary representation for each part separately.
 1)For the whole part:
◦ Use division method previously learned.
 2) For the fractional part:
◦ Use the multiplication method (Multiple by 2 until value to 0)
. Find the binary equivalent of 0.25
Step 1: Multiply the fraction by 2 until the fractional part becomes 0
.25
x2
0.5
x2
1.0
.012
Find the binary equivalent of 0.625?

 Binary arithmetic
◦ Elementary rules
Operation Result Carry
Addition 0+0 0 0
0+1 1 0
1+0 1 0
1+1 0 1
Subtraction 0-0 0 0
0-1 1 1
1-0 1 0
1-1 0 0
Multiplicati 0*0 0 0
on 0*1 0 0
1*0 0 0
1*1 1 0

 Add 7 and 4 (both positive) 00000111 7
+00000100 4
00001011 11
 Add 15 and -6 (positive > negative) 00001111 15

+11111010 -6
Discard carry 1 00001001 9
 Add 16 and -24 (negative > positive) 00010000 16

+11101000 -24
Sign bit is negative so negative 11111000
number in 2’s complement -8
 Add -5 and -9 form
(both negative)
11111011 -5
+11110111 + -9
Discard carry 1 11110010 -14
 Find 8 minus 3. 00001000 8 Minuend
+11111101 - Subtrahend
Discard carry 3 Difference
 Find 12 minus -9. 1 00000101 5
00001100 12
+00001001 -
 Find -25 minus 19. -9
00010101 21
11100111 -25
 Find -120 minus -30. +11101101 -
Discard carry 19
1 11010100 -44
10001000 -
120
+00011110 -
-30
10100110
-
 Multiplicand 1000
 Multiplier x 1000
 ---------------
 1000
 0000
 0000
 0000
 ----------------
 Product 0001000

Division of Signed Numbers
 The parts of a division operation are:
◦ Dividend
◦ Divisor
◦ Quotient
dividend
 quotient
divisor
Division is equivalent to subtracting the divisor
from the dividend a number of times equal to the
quotient.
 Consider: 11102 / 00112 (4-bit dividend & divisor)
 Quotient = 01002 and Remainder = 00102
 8-bit registers for Remainder and Divisor (8-bit ALU

 Exercises
1. 101 + 11 =
2. 111 + 111 =
3. 1010 + 1010 =
4. 11101 + 1010 =
5.10 - 10 =
6. 101 - 11 =
7. 1001 - 11 =
8. 10001 – 100
 9. 101 x 10 =
10. 1011 x 11 =
11. 11011 x 101
 12. 111 / 11 =
13. 1010 / 100 =
14. 1101 / 11 =
15. 10111 / 10

 Contents
◦ Logic gates and Boolean algebra
◦ Boolean functions and truth tables
◦ Construction of logic circuits
◦ Types of circuits
 Combinational and sequential circuits

 Binary Logic and Gates
◦ Binary variables take on one of two values.
◦ Logical operators operate on binary values and binary variables.
◦ Basic logical operators are the logic functions AND, OR and NOT.
◦ Logic gates implement logic functions.
◦ Boolean Algebra: a useful mathematical system for specifying and transforming logic
functions.
◦ Binary Variables
 Recall that the two binary values have different names:
◦ True/False
◦ On/Off
◦ Yes/No
◦ 1/0
 We use 1 and 0 to denote the two values.
Logical Operations
 The three basic logical operations are:
◦ AND
◦ OR
◦ NOT
 AND is denoted by a dot (·).
 OR is denoted by a plus (+).
 NOT is denoted by an overbar ( ¯ ), a single quote mark (') after, or (~)
before the variable.

 A Boolean operator can be
completely described using a truth
table.
 The truth table for the Boolean
operators AND and OR are shown at
the right.
 The AND operator is also known as
a Boolean product. The OR operator
is the Boolean sum.

 The truth table for the
Boolean NOT operator is
shown at the right.
 The NOT operation is most
often designated by an
overbar.

 The truth table for the
Boolean function:
is shown at the right.

 To make evaluation of the
Boolean function easier,
the truth table contains
extra (shaded) columns to
hold evaluations of
subparts of the function.

 Most Boolean identities have an AND (product) form as
well as an OR (sum) form. We give our identities using
both forms

 Our second group of Boolean identities should be
familiar to you from your study of algebra:

 Our last group of Boolean identities are perhaps the
most useful.
 If you have studied set theory or formal logic, these
laws are also familiar to you.

 We can use Boolean identities to simplify the
function:
as follows:

 Thus, we find the the complement of:

 We have looked at Boolean functions in abstract terms.
 In this section, we see that Boolean functions are
implemented in digital computer circuits called gates.
 A gate is an electronic device that produces a result based
on two or more input values.
◦ Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a
particular purpose.

 The three simplest gates are the AND, OR, and NOT
gates.
 They correspond directly to their respective Boolean

operations, as you can see by their truth tables.

 Another very useful gate is the exclusive OR (XOR)
gate.
 The output of the XOR operation is true only when the
values of the inputs differ.
Note the special

symbol  for the XOR
operation.

 NAND and NOR are
two very important
gates. Their symbols
and truth tables are
shown at the right.

 NAND and NOR are
known as universal
gates because they
are inexpensive to
manufacture and any
Boolean function can
be constructed using
only NAND or only
NOR gates.

 The main thing to remember is that combinations of
gates implement Boolean functions.
 The circuit below implements the Boolean function:
We simplify our Boolean expressions so that

we can create simpler circuits.

 Combinational & Sequential logic circuit
◦ combinational circuits
 Output is dependent only on input
 Doesn’t contain memory element
 Value of present output is determined by present input
 Examples of combinational circuits are half adders, full adders
◦ Sequential circuits
 Outputs depend on present inputs and previous inputs also
 It contains memory elements for storing previous state inputs
 Examples of sequential circuits are flip flops, counters, shift
registers

 As we see, the sum can be
found using the XOR operation
and the carry using the AND
operation.

 How can we change the half
adder shown below to make
it a full adder?

 Here’s our completed full adder.

 To retain their state values, sequential circuits rely on
feedback.
 Feedback in digital circuits occurs when an output is
looped back to the input.
 A simple example of this concept is shown below.
◦ If Q is 0 it will always be 0, if it is 1, it will always be 1.
Why?

 You can see how feedback works by examining the
most basic sequential logic components, the SR flip-
flop.
◦ The “SR” stands for set/reset.
 The internals of an SR flip-flop are shown below,
along with its block diagram.

 The behavior of an SR flip-flop is described by
a characteristic table.
 Q(t) means the value of the output at time t.
Q(t+1) is the value of Q after the next clock
pulse.

 Draw a circuit diagram corresponding to the following
Boolean expression: (AB + C)D
Boolean expression:(AB)’ + (CD)’
 Show the behavior of the following circuit with a truth
table:
Boolean expression:(A + B)(B + C)

 Contents
◦ Introduction to data communication
◦ Mode of data communication
◦ Computer networking and Type of networks
◦ Network components and transmission media
◦ Network topology
◦ Introduction to the internet and services
◦ At end this chapter student will able to understand what is network and
internet and it services and also how to construct computer network

 DATA COMMUNICATION
◦ Data and information from one computer system can be
transmitted to other systems across geographical areas by
communication channel . A communication channel refers to
the medium used to convey information from a sender (or
transmitter) to a receiver.
◦ Examples of channels: copper wires, optical fibbers or
wireless communication channels.
 Basic Elements for data Communication
 A sender (source) which creates the message to be
transmitted.
 A medium that carries the message.
 A receiver (destination) which receives the message.
 Communication Protocols: The procedure of data
transformation in the form of software

 Mode of data communication
 Three ways for transmitting data
 Simplex transmission
 Signals are transmitted in only one direction
 e.g. Television
 Half duplex
 Signals can be transmitted in either direction, but only one way at
a time.
 e.g. police radio
 Full duplex
 Both stations may transmit simultaneously.
 e.g. telephone

 Computer networking
◦ The term “network” has many definitions, most people
would agree that networks are collections of two or more
connected computers.
◦ A network as a group of computers and associated devices
that are connected by communications facilities.
◦ The concept of connected computers sharing resources is
called networking.
◦ Once computers are joined in a networks, people can:
 A network supports communication among users
 share information or data.
 share hardware and software(applications, printers, modems, disk
space, scanners, etc)
 Administer and support the network centrally

Major types of networks
 There are three types of networks.
◦ Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a high-speed data network that
covers a relatively small geographic area. It typically connects
workstations, personal computers, printers, servers, and other devices.
◦ Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN is a relatively new class of
network, it covers larger geographic areas, such as cities or school
districts.
◦ Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN is a data communications network
that covers a relatively broad(big or wide) geographic area and that often
uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as
telephone companies.

 Network components
◦ Computer
 Client
 Server
◦ Transmission media
 Cable
 Switch
 hub
 router
 Bridge
◦ Modem (modulation and demodulation)
 NIC (network interface card)
◦ Protocol

 Network topology
◦ A topology is concerned with the physical arrangement of the network
components
◦ The layout of a network, the way computers and other devices are
connected together is called topology.
 There are 4 basic topologies
◦ Bus topology
 Bus consists of a single linear cable called a trunk.
 The data packet travels the cable until it is accepted by the
computer whose address matches it.
 Because all computers share the cable, only one computer at a
time can successfully send messages. Therefore, the more
computers on a bus, the slower the network

 A ‘trunk’ is a communication line, typically coax cable, that is
referred to as the ‘bus.’ The signal travels from one end of the
bus to the other.
 A terminator is required at each end to absorb the signal so it
does not reflect back across the bus.
 In a bus topology, signals are broadcast to all stations. Each
computer checks the address on the signal (data frame) as it
passes along the bus. If the signal’s address matches that of the
computer, the computer processes the signal. If the address
doesn’t match, the computer takes no action and the signal
travels on down the bus.

Star Topology
 Computers are connected by cable segments to a centralized hub.
 Signal travels through the hub to all other computers.
 Requires more cable.
 If hub goes down, entire network goes down.
 If a computer goes down, the network functions normally.
 most scalable and reconfigurable of all topologies

Ring Topology
 Computers are connected on a single circle of cable.
 There are no terminated ends to the cable; the signal travels
around the circle in a clockwise (or anticlockwise) direction
 usually seen in a Token Ring
 Each computer acts as a repeater and keeps the signal strong
=> no need for repeaters on a ring topology
 No termination required => because its a ring

Mesh
 The mesh topology connects each computer on the network to
the others
 Meshes use a significantly larger amount of network cabling
than do the other network topologies, which makes it more
expensive.
 The mesh topology is highly fault tolerant.
◦ Every computer has multiple possible connection paths to the other
computers on the network, so a single cable break will not stop network
communications between any two computers

Introduction to the internet and services
 Internet
◦ It is the largest network in the world that connects hundreds
of thousands of individual networks all over the world.
◦ The popular term for the Internet is the “information
highway
◦ Internet: The internet is a global network of interconnected
networks, connecting private, public and university
networks in one cohesive unit.
◦ Intranet: An intranet is a private enterprise network that
uses internet and web technologies for information gathering
and distribution within an organization.
◦ Extranet: An extranet is a community of interest created by
extending an intranet to selected entities external to an
organization.

 The uses of the Internet
◦ Send e-mail messages.
◦ Send (upload) or receive (down load) files
between computers.
◦ Participate in discussion groups, such as
mailing lists and newsgroups
◦ Talk to other people
◦ Remote login
◦ Soon

 Internet Service Provider (ISP)
◦ A commercial organization with permanent connection to the
Internet that sells temporary connections to subscribers.
◦ Example ETC.com
 What is Web?
◦ The Web (World Wide Web) consists of information organized into Web
pages containing text and graphic images.
◦ It contains hypertext links, or highlighted keywords and images that lead to

related information.
◦ A collection of linked Web pages that has a common theme or focus is called
a Web site.
◦ The main page that all of the pages on a particular Web site are organized
around and link back to is called the site’s home page.

 How to access the Web?
◦ Once you have your Internet connection, then you need
special software called a browser to access the Web.
◦ Web browsers are used to connect you to remote computers,
open and transfer files, display text and images.
◦ Web browsers are specialized programs.
◦ A Web browser is the software that you run on your
computer to make it work as a web client
◦ Examples of Web browser: Mozilla Firefox, opera ,Google
chrome , safari and Internet Explorer

Uniform Resource Locators
 The IP address and the domain name each identify a particular
computer on the Internet.
 However, they do not indicate where a Web page’s HTML
document resides on that computer.
 To identify a Web pages exact location, Web browsers rely on
Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
 URL is a four-part addressing scheme that tells the Web
browser:
 What transfer protocol to use for transporting the file
 The domain name of the computer on which the file resides
 The pathname of the folder or directory on the computer on
which the file resides
 The name of the file

pathname
protocol
http://www.chicagosymphony.org/civicconcerts/index.htm
Domain name filename
http => Hypertext Transfer Protocol

 A web address is typically composed of four parts:
 For example, the address http://www.google.ca is made up of
the following areas:
 http:// This Web server uses Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP). This is the most common protocol on the Internet.
 www This site is on the World Wide Web.
 Google The Web server and site maintainer.
 ca This tells us it is a site in Canada.
Endings of web pages tells us a bit about the page. Some
common endings to web addresses are:
 .com (commercial)
 .edu (educational institution)
 .gov (government)
 .net (network)
 .org (organization)
 CHAPTER Seven :
Computer safety and security
◦ Contents
 definition of computer virus
 Type of computer virus
 Symptoms that an infected computer shows
 Prevention mechanism of computer virus
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 Threat of a computer system
◦ Threat is a source of probable trouble or attack to a system that
could cause losses. One the threat in computer system is virus.
◦ Computer viruses
 Are software program that are able to reproduce themselves.
 It is intellectual creation pf a human computer programmer.
 Is a program that is intentionally done to harm users' program
without permission.
 Not all virus are destructive, some virus viruses carry message
without harming program or data.
 Virus - code that copies itself into other programs.
 Worm - a program that replicates itself across the network (usually
riding on email messages or attached documents (e.g., macro
viruses).
 Trojan Horse - instructions in an otherwise good program that
cause bad things to happen (sending your data or password to an
attacker over the net). 1
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 Dangers(Symptoms) of computer viruses
◦ Change :it change actual data or text causing different sense.
◦ Slackness: cause slow computing operation because of the
load that their reproductive activity impose.
◦ Theft :virus can steal data and stolen data can be used to re-
steal other more data
◦ Scramble(mix): virus can scramble data and files
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 There are three major type of viruses
◦ Boot sector viruses
 Attach themselves to system code and hides behind boot sector of
hard disk
◦ File/program infector
 Attach themselves to executable files or program run
 Therefore file infector affect system performance.
◦ Macro viruses
 Are hosted in user documents
 Result can be just as destructive.
 It represent larger threat as they attack data file rather than
executables
 Although executable files can be easily replaced by reinstalling the
affected software ,documents are irreplaceable unless they have been
backed up onto other media
◦ System viruses
 Attach themselves to the specific system files. E.g Command.com
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 Potential paths for virus
◦ Viruses are transmitted through various media such as:
 Storage devices .E.g. hard disk, floppy disk, flash disk,CD-ROM
 Internet connection-mail attachments, sharing infected files
 Direct cabling between PCs (network)
 Rules for safe computer
 These simple rules will protect /secure/your system from computer virus
infection
 Never load unknown disks into system unless the disks are virus free
 Don’t use infected software (executables ) unless they are free of virus
infection
 Backup your data regularly to protect the data loss from any cause
 Prevent unauthorized access
 Lock your computer when not in use
 Install antivirus program on to your computer
 Turn on Windows Internet firewall.
 Use Microsoft Update to keep Windows up-to-date automatically
 Install and maintain antispyware software, such as Windows Defender
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 Integrity:
◦ Guarantee that the data is what we expect
 Confidentiality
◦ Keeping data and resources hidden
 Reliability
◦ Computers should work without having unexpected problems
 Authentication
◦ Guarantee that only authorized persons can access to the resources
 Availability
◦ Enabling access to data and resources
180
 Safety of the computer system
◦ Computers require uniform and uninterrupted power supply, no
noise interference and suitable environmental condition for
reliable operation.
◦ Power line problem
 Voltage spikes –unrecognized and quick power OFF and ON
 Voltage surges-over voltage
 Voltage sages-under voltage
These power problem can be solved through the use of uninterrupted
power supply(UPS) because UPS stand between the utility power
and the system
◦ Environmental factors
 Temperature –integrate circuit and other devices in computer
system are sensitive to temperature
 Dust-Electro mechanical devices such as printer and disk drives
have a number of moving parts that get dirty causing overheating
and early failures. 1
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 Measures
◦ Clean computer system and its peripherals periodically
◦ Use dust cover
◦ Keep computer room windows closed
◦ No smoking near the system
◦ Don’t touch the surface of disk drives and other internal components
◦ Clean the inside portion as well as the area with a vacuum cleaner
◦ Blow the dust in the screen
◦ Use soft brush to clean the screen
 Thanks for all !!!
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Overview of Computer Science

1.1 Introduction to Information and Communication Technology

•Atend of this chapter student understand what is computer and

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 First Generation (1945 – 1954)

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 Speed :quality and performance of a computer is

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 Most analog computers are special purpose

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◦ Click and drag – Holding down the left mouse button

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