Principles of Communications (Am)

Principles of Electronic
Communications
Amplitude Modulation
Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 1

Communication
• Is the process of sending and/or receiving
messages between 2 or more points via
electronic, electromagnetic or radio waves.
• It is the process by which information is

conveyed from a point in space and time called
the SOURCE to another point called the
DESTINATION

Objective of Communication
• To receive the information correctly and
clearly
– INFORMATION
• is that which is conveyed (bits/dits)
– MESSAGE
• the physical manifestation of information as produced
by the source (whatever form of the message takes, the
goal of communication system is to reproduce at the
destination an acceptable replica of the source message)

FORMS OF MESSAGE
• Signal
– Analog
• a physical quantity that varies with time, usually in a
smooth and continuous fashion. (human voice)
– Digital
• is an ordered sequence of symbols selected from a
finite set of discrete elements (keyboard)
• Codes
• Letters/Numbers
MODES OF TRANSMISSION
• Simplex – one way communication
• Duplex – two way communications
– Half-duplex
• Transmission can occur in both directions, but not at
the same time.
– Full-duplex
• Transmission can occur in both direction at the same
time
– Full-Full Duplex
• possible to transmit and receive simultaneously, but
not necessary between the same two location
MAJOR SERVICES
RADIO FREQUENCY BANDS

AND MAJOR SERVICES
• ELF – Extremely Low Frequency • LF – Low Frequency
(30-300Hz) (30kHz – 300kHz)
– Submarine Applications – Radio Navigation
• VF – Voice Frequency – Maritime Mobile
(300Hz - 3kHz) Communications
– Human Voice – Aeronautical Communications
• VLF – Very Low Frequency • MF – Medium Frequency
(3 – 30kHz) (300kHz – 3MHz)
– Radio Navigation – AM Broadcasting
– Maritime Mobile – Amateur Communications
Communications – Fixed and Mobile
– Aeronautical Communications Communications
– Maritime and Aeronautical
Aids and Communications

AND MAJOR SERVICES
• HF – High Frequency • UHF – Ultra High Frequency
(3MHz – 30MHz) (300MHz – 3GHz)
– Short Wave Broadcasting – TV Broadcasting
– Point-to-Point Communications – Aeronautical and Land Mobile
– Amateur Communications Communications
– Land, Maritime & Aeronautical – Radioastronomy
Communications – Telemetry
• VHF – Very High Frequency – Satellite Communications
(30MHz – 300MHz) – Amateur Communications
– Land and Aeronautical Mobile • SHF – Super High Frequency
Communications (3GHz – 30GHz)
– Industrial and Amateur – Microwave Relay
Communications – Satellite and Exploratory
– FM and TV Broadcasting Communications
– Space and Meteorology – Amateur Communications
Communications
– Radio Navigation

ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
 It is the totality of the mechanism that

provides the transfer of information.
 It includes the components, equipment
that is being utilized to execute the
communication process.

SYSTEMS
BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ELECTRONIC
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
SOURCE Speech or Image Audio or Image DESTINATION
INPUT Microphone Speaker OUTPUT

TRANSDUCER or Camera or CRT TRANSDUCER
Provides processes
TRANSMITTER that enables Recovers
message the message RECEIVER
to travel long distance
CHANNEL
or
MEDIUM
SYSTEMS
COMPONENTS OF A TRANSMITTER
• Audio amplifiers – amplify the audio signal
for modulation process
• Oscillator – generates carrier signal
• Modulating amplifier – provides
modulation process and amplifies the
modulated signal for transmission
• Transmitting Antenna – radiates
electromagnetic energy in space
SYSTEMS
COMPONENTS OF A RECEIVER
• Receiving Antenna – captures the
electromagnetic energy
• Demodulator – extracts the message from
the carrier waves
• Audio amplifiers – amplify the audio signal
for modulation process
• Oscillator – incorporates the internal
tuning circuit
SYSTEMS
MODULATION
• It is the process of altering the characteristics of
the carrier signal (amplitude, frequency and
phase) in accordance with the instantaneous
change of the modulating or information signal.
• It is the process of combining the carrier wave
with the information signal.
• It is the process of converting low frequency
signal to a higher frequency.

SYSTEMS
REASONS FOR MODULATION
• Difficulty in radiating low-frequency signals
from an antenna in the form of
electromagnetic energy.
• Reduce noise and interference
• For frequency assignment

MODULATION
• The systematic alteration of the characteristics
of the carrier signal in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
• The process of superimposing a low-frequency
intelligence signal upon a higher-frequency
carrier signal.
Demodulation
• The process of recovering the modulating signal
back from a modulated carrier signal.

MODULATION
Major Classifications of Modulation
Continuous Wave Modulation
– Linear modulation
• Amplitude Modulation
– Angular modulation
• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
Pulse or Discrete Modulation
– Analog modulation
– Digital modulation

Continuous Wave Modulation
Linear modulation
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
• The process in which the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance with
the message or the modulating signal.

Carrier signal ec(t) = Ec sin (ct)
ec(t)
Ec t
Tc=1 / fc
c = 2fc

Modulating signal em(t) = Em sin (mt)
em(t)
Em t
T m = 1 / fm
m = 2fm

AM signal eAM(t) = A sin (ct)
eAM(t)
Emax
Emin
t

Modulation Index and Percent Modulation
• a measure of the extent to which the carrier
current or voltage is varied by the intelligence
• ratio of the modulating signal voltage to the
carrier voltage
Em
m (0  m  1)
Ec
Degrees of Modulation
• Undermodulation (m < 1)
eAM(t)
Em
EC
t

• Perfect / Ideal / 100% modulation (m = 1)
eAM(t)
Em
EC t

• Overmodulation (m > 1)
eAM(t)
Em
EC t
Distortion on the modulating signal

• Mathematical Analysis of a Double
Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC) AM
AM eAM
em amplitude
modulating DSBFC
MODULATOR modulated
signal signal
ec
carrier signal

Mathematical Analysis of a
DSBFC AM
• Assume: em(t) = Em sin (mt) modulating signal
ec(t) = Ec sin (ct) carrier signal
• Since eAM(t) = A sin (ct) AM signal eq.1
• From the AM wave: A = Ec + em(t)
= Ec + Em sin (mt)
• But Em= mEc
A = Ec + mEc sin (mt) eq. 2
• Substitute eq. 2 in eq. 1
• eAM(t) = [Ec + mEc sin (mt)] sin (ct)
• eAM(t) = Ec sin (ct) + mEc [sin (ct) sin (mt)]

DSBFC AM
sin A sin B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)]

1
Recall:
2
mEc mEc
e AM (t )  Ec sin c t  cos(c  m )t  cos(c  m )t
2 2
Carrier component Upper side component
Lower side component

DSBFC AM
• DSBFC AM Spectrum
e Ec
f
fc-fm fc fc+fm
Lower Side-Frequency Upper Side-Frequency

Pilot Carrier
Bandwidth = f = USF – LSF = (fc+fm) – (fc-fm) = 2fm

POWER CALCULATIONS IN AM
PT = PC + PLSB + PUSB (RMS)
( E c / 2 ) 2 [( mEc / 2) / 2 ] 2 [( mEc / 2) / 2 ] 2
PT   
R R R
2
Ec ( mEc ) 2 ( mEc ) 2
PT   
2R 8R 8R
Ec
2
 m2 m 2  Ec
2
 m2 
PT  1     1  
2R  4 4  2R  2 
m2 PT = total transmitted power

PT  Pc (1  ) PC = unmodulated carrier signal
2 power
m = modulation index
Voltage and Current Calculations
in AM
V-I AM Calculations
m2 m2
IT  I c 1 VT  Vc 1
2 2
IT = rms current of the modulated carrier

IC = rms current of the unmodulated carrier
VT = rms voltage of the modulated carrier
VC = rms voltage of the unmodulated carrier

Multiple-tone AM Modulation
PSBT = PSB1 + PSB2 + PSB3 + ……..
but: PSB = PC (m2 / 2)
therefore:
2 2 2 2
mT m1 m2 m3
Pc  Pc  Pc  Pc  .....
2 2 2 2
mT  m1  m2  m3  ........
2 2 2

Problems
1. A 1 MHz RF carrier signal is modulated with a
3 kHz AF sinusoidal tone. The modulated
carrier voltage is 30 Vmax and 15 Vmin across
a 100  resistive load impedance. Assume
peak values, determine the:
– zero modulation RF carrier voltage
– modulation factor
– carrier power
– sideband power
– total power
– various frequencies
Problems
2. An input to an AM modulator is 500 kHz
carrier with a peak amplitude of 20 V. The
second input is a 10 kHz modulating signal
that is of sufficient amplitude to cause a peak
change in the output wave of 7.5 V.
– find the sideband frequencies
– find the modulation index
– find the voltage peak amplitude of the carrier and
the sidebands
– determine the maximum and minimum amplitudes
of the AM signal
– determine the AM signal expression

Problems
3. For the AM DSBFC wave with a peak
unmodulated voltage of 10V and a load
resistance of 10, the modulation index
is given to be 0.5. Determine
– the carrier and sideband powers
– the total power
– the percent power of the information
– the power spectrum

Problems
4. The antenna current of an AM transmitter
is 8A when only the carrier is sent but it
increases to 8.93A when the carrier is
modulated by a single sine wave. Find
the percent modulation. If 80%
modulation is desired, what should be
the modulation index of the second
wave? What is the antenna current
then?
SIDEBAND SYSTEMS
Major Disadvantages of DSBFC
– Power is wasted in the transmitted signal. Most of

the transmitted power is in the carrier, which does
not contribute to the transmitted intelligence.
Remember that the carrier contains no
intelligence.
– The transmitted signal requires twice the bandwidth
of the transmitted intelligence.

SIDEBAND SYSTEMS
Eliminating the Carrier
– Suppressed-carrier modulation
– Carrier suppression can be accomplished
using the balanced modulator.
Balanced Modulator Circuit
– A non-linear device that generates the sum
and difference of the input frequencies
– Also known as product modulators

Methods of Generating Single-
Sideband
1. Filter Method
AF AF Side Amp Final

Input Amp BM Band Stages Power
Stages Filter Amp
RF
Oscillator

Sideband
2. Phase-Shift Method
BM
cos ct
90o Phase 90o Phase Linear

Shifter Shifter + Amp
BM
Sideband
3. Weaver Method or Third Method
BM LPF BM
cos ct
~ ~
90o cos ct 90o Linear

+ Amp
BM LPF BM

AM RECEIVERS
• The electronic unit that selects the desired AM
signal transmitted and extracts the original
information signal
Basic Functions of AM Receiver

• Tunes to accept the desired carrier signal
• Detects the intelligence from the radio frequency
• Sufficient amplification is provided

AM RECEIVERS
Characteristics of a Receiver
1. Sensitivity
• A measure of a receiver’s ability to receive and
amplify weak signal
• Minimum input voltage required to produce a
significant output
• Defined in terms of voltage that must be applied
to the receiver input terminals to give a standard
output power, measured at the output terminals

AM RECEIVERS
2. Selectivity
• A measure of the receiver’s ability to
select one signal while rejecting all others
at nearby frequencies

AM RECEIVERS
Selectivity
0dB
-3dB
BW f
f1 f2
fr Xc X L fr
BW – bandwidth Q  
fr – resonant frequency R R BW
f1 – lower cut-off frequency
f2 – upper cut-off frequency 1
Q – quality factor of tank circuit fr 
2 LC
AM RECEIVERS
2. Stability
• It is the ability of the receiver to be fixed or
tuned to a desired frequency

Types of Radio Receiver
1. Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF)
Receiver
1st RF 2nd RF Audio Audio

Amp Amp Detector Voltage Power
Stage Stage Amp Amp
Ganged Tuning

1. Super-heterodyne Receiver (SHR)
AGC
RF Audio
Amp Mixer IF Amp Detector Amp
Stages
Local
Oscillator
Ganged Tuning
 Operation of SHR
454KHz
455KHz
456KHz IF
999KHz 999KHz 454KHz
1000KHz Mixer Amplifier 455KHz
1000KHz 455KHz
1001KHz 1001KHz 456KHz
1455KHz
2454KHz
Local 2455KHz
Oscillator 2456KHz
fLO = 1000KHz + 455KHz
Tuned at 1000KHz

 Image Frequency
20MHz
21MHz
41MHz
IF
1MHz
20MHz Mixer Amplifier 1MHz
1MHz
22MHz 22MHz 1MHz
21MHz
43MHz
Local 1MHz Image signal
Image Frequency Oscillator
fLO = 20MHz + 1MHz
Tuned at 20MHz

Image Frequency Rejection
Note that: fLO = fr + fIF
and fi – fLO = fIF
Therefore:
fi = fr + 2fIF
fi – image frequency
fIF – Intermediate Frequency
fLO – local oscillator’s frequency
fr – desired or tuned frequency
IFRR
• Image Frequency Rejection Ratio
• Numerical measure of the ability of a pre-
selector to reject the image frequency
• Ratio of the gain at the desired RF to the gain at
the image frequency
• Image frequency rejection depends on the front-
end selectivity of the receiver and must be
achieved before the IF stage
IFRR  1  Q 2  2
fi fr
  
fr fi
Q – Quality factor of the tuned circuit
fi – image frequency
fr – desired frequency
For Cascaded Tuned Circuits
IFRRT = IFRR1 x IFRR2 x IFRR3 ….

Problems
1. In a broadcast SHR having no RF
amplifier, the loaded Q of the antenna
coupling circuit is 100. If the IF is
455KHz calculate
a. image frequency and IFRR at
1000KHz
b. image frequency and IFRR at 25MHz

Problems
2. In order to make the IFRR of the receiver
of no.1 as good at 25MHz as it was at
1000KHz, compute
a. the loaded Q which an RF amplifier for
this receiver would have to have.
b. the new IF that would be needed (if
there is to be no RF amp)

An inventor is one who can see the applicability
of means to supplying demand five years before
it is obvious to those skilled in the art.
"The Inventions of Reginald A. Fessenden".

(January, 1925). Radio News, p. 1142.
THANK YOU

References
• Kennedy, George & Davis, Bernard (1993). Electronic
Communication System 4th Edition. Ohio:
GLENCOE Macmillan / McGraw Hill
• Frenzel, Louis E. (1994). Communication Electronics 2nd
Edition. Singapore: McGraw Hill International
Editions
• Tomasi, Wayne (2004). Electronic Communications
Systems: Fundamentals Through Advanced. New
Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Principles of Electronic

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 1

• It is the process by which information is

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 2

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 3

RADIO FREQUENCY BANDS

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 6

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Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 8

 It is the totality of the mechanism that

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 9

INPUT Microphone Speaker OUTPUT

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Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 17

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Distortion on the modulating signal

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 24

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Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 26

sin A sin B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)]

Carrier component Upper side component

Lower side component

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 27

Lower Side-Frequency Upper Side-Frequency

Bandwidth = f = USF – LSF = (fc+fm) – (fc-fm) = 2fm

m2 PT = total transmitted power

IT = rms current of the modulated carrier

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 30

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 31

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– Power is wasted in the transmitted signal. Most of

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AF AF Side Amp Final

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 38

90o Phase 90o Phase Linear

90o cos ct 90o Linear

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 40

Basic Functions of AM Receiver

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 41

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1st RF 2nd RF Audio Audio

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fLO = 1000KHz + 455KHz

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 48

fLO = 20MHz + 1MHz

Engr.Rex Jason H. Agustin 49

For Cascaded Tuned Circuits

IFRRT = IFRR1 x IFRR2 x IFRR3 ….