Compressors

PROLIFIC SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES PVT LTD
ASIA’S LARGEST INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION TRAINING

COMPANY
ISO 9001-2008 CERTIFIED ORGANISATION
Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 1

3 GOLDEN RULES OF COMPRESSED AIR USAGE
Compressed air should only be used if safety enhancements and significant

productivity gains will result
Typical overall efficiency is 10 to 15 percent. Therefore, if compressed air is

used for an application, the amount of air used should be the minimum
necessary quantity and pressure and should be used for the shortest
possible duration
Compressed air use should also be constantly monitored and re-evaluated

INTRODUCTION
 Compressed air is used widely throughout industry and
is often considered the “fourth utility” at many
facilities.
 Plant air compressor systems can vary in size from a
small unit of 5 horsepower (hp) to huge systems with
more than 50,000 hp.
 In many industrial facilities, air compressors use more
electricity than any other type of equipment.
 Inefficiencies in compressed air systems can therefore
be significant. Energy savings from system
improvements can range from 20 to 50 percent or more
of electricity consumption.
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM
SUPPLY SIDE AND DEMAND SIDE
 Compressed air systems consist of a supply side, which
includes compressors and air treatment, and a demand side,
which includes distribution and storage systems and end-use
equipment.
 A properly managed supply side will result in clean, dry,

stable air being delivered at the appropriate pressure in a
dependable and cost-effective manner.
 A properly managed demand side minimizes wasted air and

uses compressed air for appropriate applications.
 Improving and maintaining peak compressed air system

performance requires addressing both the supply and
demand sides of the system and how the two interact.
COMPRESSED AIR – ONE OF THE MOST
EXPENSIVE UTILITIES ON THE SHOP FLOOR
 Compressed air generation is one of the most
expensive utilities in an industrial facility. When used
wisely, compressed air can provide a safe and reliable
source of power to key industrial processes.
 Users should always consider other cost-effective
forms of power to accomplish the required tasks and
eliminate unproductive demands.
 Inappropriate uses of compressed air include any
application that can be done more effectively or
more efficiently by a method other than compressed
air.
LIFE CYCLE COST OF A COMPRESSOR
Source - CII

INAPPROPRIATE USE OF COMPRESSED AIR
OPEN BLOWING
Open blowing is using compressed air applied
with an open, unregulated tube, hose, or pipe
for one of these applications:
 Cooling, Bearing cooling, Drying, Clean-up,
Draining compressed air lines, Clearing jams
on conveyors
The alternatives to open blowing are vast.
Some are -
 Brushes, Brooms, Dust collection systems,
Non-air-loss auto drains, Blowers, lowers
with knives, Electric fans, Electric barrel
pumps, Mixers, Nozzles.
SPARGING, ASPIRATING, ATOMIZING
 Sparging is aerating, agitating, oxygenating, or percolating
liquid with compressed air. This is a particularly inappropriate
application because liquid can be wicked into a dry gas,
increasing the dew point. The lower the dew point of the
compressed air, the more severe the wicking effect. This can
occur with oil, caustics, water rinse materials, etc. Alternatives
to sparging include low-pressure blowers and mixers.
 Aspirating is using compressed air to induce the flow of

another gas with compressed air such as flue gas. An
alternative is a low-pressure blower.
 Atomizing is the use of compressed air to disperse or deliver a

liquid to a process as an aerosol. An example is atomizing fuel
into a boiler. Fluctuating pressure can affect combustion
efficiency. An alternative is a low-pressure blower.
PADDING
Padding is using compressed air to transport
liquids and light solids. Air is dispensed over
the material to be moved. The expansion of
the air moves the material. The material is
usually only moved short distances.
An example is unloading tanks or tank cars.

Molecular diffusion and wicking are typical
problems with padding. An alternative is low
to medium pressure blowers.
VACUUM GENERATION
 Vacuum generation describes applications where compressed
air is used in conjunction with a venturi, eductor, or ejector to
generate a negative pressure mass flow.
 Typical applications are hold-downs or 55-gallon, drum-

mounted, compressed air vacuum cleaners.
 This is by far the most inefficient application in industry with

less than 4 percent total efficiency, although for very
intermittent use (less than 30 percent load factor), compressed
air can be a reasonably efficient solution. An alternative is a
vacuum pump.
 If a compressed-air-generated vacuum is required, install a

solenoid valve on the compressed air supply line to shut this
application off when it is not needed. 10
Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd.
HAND BLOWING
 Unregulated hand-held blowing is not only a violation of most
health and safety codes, but is also very dangerous. Hand-held
blowguns that conform to all occupational health and safety
standards should be used.
 There are different styles of blowguns that can deliver various
airflows, velocities, and concentrations.
 The proper gun must be selected for each application. Pipes
installed in the end of hose and unregulated non-approved guns
must not be used. Blowguns must have not more than 30 psig
discharge nozzle pressure.
 The nozzle should be constructed to relieve backpressure if the
nozzle is plugged or blocked. The blowgun must also have a
spring-operated throttle mechanism so it shuts off automatically
if it is dropped. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd.
11
UNREGULATED END USE
 A pressure regulator is used to limit maximum end
use pressure and is placed in the distribution system
just prior to the end use. If an end use operates
without a regulator, it uses full system pressure.
 This results in increased system air demand and
energy use, since the end use is using air at this
higher pressure.
 High pressure levels can also increase equipment
wear, resulting in higher maintenance costs and
shorter end use equipment life.
ABANDONED EQUIPMENT
Many plants undergo numerous equipment
configuration changes over time. In some
cases, plant equipment is no longer used.
Air flow to this unused equipment should be

stopped, preferably as far back in the
distribution system as possible without
affecting operating equipment.

THE SNAPSHOT OF INAPPROPRIATE USES OF
COMPRESSED AIR AND SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVES

POTENTIAL FOR ENERGY SAVING
Simple House Keeping Measures 5 – 10 %
Long term ( Capital intensive) 10 –15%
Total Potential for savings 15 –25%

OVERVIEW OF SUB-SYSTEMS AND
SUB COMPONENTS OF A COMPRESSOR SYSTEM
 A modern industrial compressed air system is composed of
several major sub-systems and many sub-components.
Major sub-systems include the compressor, prime mover,
controls, treatment equipment and accessories, and the
distribution system.
 The compressor is the mechanical device that takes in

ambient air and increases its pressure. The prime mover
powers the compressor. Controls serve to regulate the
amount of compressed air being produced. The treatment
equipment removes contaminants from the compressed
air, and accessories keep the system operating properly.
COMPONENTS OF A TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL
COMPRESSES AIR SYSTEM

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – INTAKE AIR FILTERS
 Intake Air Filters that prevent dust from entering a compressor.
Dust causes sticking valves, scoured cylinders, excessive
wear etc.
 Coalescing filters are the most common form of compressed

air purification. These filters remove liquid water and
lubricants from compressed air and are installed downstream
in a refrigerated air dryer system or upstream in a desiccant
dryer system.
 Filters are rated according to liquid particle retention size
(micron) and efficiency, such as 0.50 micron and 99.99%
D.O.P. efficient, or 0.01 micron and 99.9999% D.O.P efficient.
 Coalescing filters can only remove previously condensed
liquids; they do not remove water or lubricant vapors from
the compressed air. Any condensation produced from
subsequent compressed air cooling will have to be
eliminated. When seeking to remove water and lubricant
vapors from compressed air, specify an air dryer.
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – COMPRESSED AIR FILTERS
 Compressed air filters downstream of the air
compressor are generally required for the removal of
contaminants, such as particulates, condensate, and
lubricant.
 Filtration only to the level required by each

compressed air application will minimize pressure
drop and resultant energy consumption.
 Elements should also be replaced as indicated by

pressure differential to minimize pressure drop and
energy consumption, and should be checked at least
annually.
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – WHY
COMPRESSOR COOLING IS REQUIRED
 Air or gas compression generates heat. As a result,
industrial air compressors that operate continuously
generate substantial amounts of heat.
 Compressor units are cooled with air, water, and/or
lubricant. Single-acting reciprocating compressors
are typically air-cooled using a fan, which is an
integral part of the belt-drive flywheel. Cooling air
blows across finned surfaces on the outside of the
compressor cylinder’s cooler tubes.
 Larger, water-cooled, double acting reciprocating air
compressors have built-in cooling water jackets
around the cylinders and in the cylinder heads. 20
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – WHY
COMPRESSOR COOLING IS REQUIRED
 The temperature of the inlet water and the design and
cleanliness of the cooler can affect overall system
performance and efficiency.
 Centrifugal compressors are generally water-cooled
 Lubricant-injected rotary compressors use the injected

lubricant to remove most of the heat of compression.
 In air-cooled compressors, a radiator-type lubricant cooler is

used to cool the lubricant before it is re-injected. The cooling
fan may be driven from the main motor-drive shaft or by a
small auxiliary electric motor.
 In plants where good quality water is available, shell and tube

heat exchangers generally are used.
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – INTER STAGE COOLERS
 Inter-stage Coolers that reduce the temperature of

the air before it enters the next stage to reduce the
work of compression and increase efficiency. They
are normally air cooled / water-cooled.
 Most multi-stage compressors use intercoolers,

which are heat exchangers that remove the heat of
compression between the stages of compression.
Inter-cooling affects the overall efficiency of the
machine.

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – AFTER COOLERS
 As mechanical energy is applied to a gas for compression, the
temperature of the gas increases. After-coolers are installed
after the final stage of compression to reduce the air
temperature.
 As the air temperature is reduced, water vapor in the air is
condensed, separated, collected, and drained from the
system. Most of the condensate from a compressor with inter
cooling is removed in the intercooler(s), and the remainder in
the after-cooler.
 Almost all industrial systems, except those that supply
process air to heat-indifferent operations require after-
cooling. In some systems, after-coolers are an integral part of
the compressor package, while in other systems the after-
cooler is a separate piece of equipment. Some systems have
both. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 23
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – SEPARATORS
 Separators are devices that separate liquids
entrained in the air or gas. A separator generally is
installed following each intercooler or after-cooler to
remove the condensed moisture. This involves
changes in direction and velocity and may include
impingement baffles.
 Lubricant-injected rotary compressors have an
air/lubricant coalescing separator immediately after
the compressor discharge to separate the injected
lubricant before it is cooled and re-circulated to the
compressor. This separation must take place before
cooling to prevent condensed moisture from being
entrained in the lubricant.
WHY AIR DRYING IS ESSENTIAL
 Atmospheric air contains moisture. The higher the air
temperature, the more moisture the air is capable of
holding.
 The term “relative humidity” is commonly used to
describe the moisture content although technically,
the correct term is “relative vapor pressure,” the air
and the water vapor being considered as gases.
 When the air contains all the moisture possible
under the prevailing conditions, it is called
“saturated.” Air at 80 percent relative humidity
would contain 80 percent of the maximum possible.
WHY AIR DRYING IS ESSENTIAL
 When air is compressed and occupies a smaller
volume, it can no longer contain all of the moisture
possible at atmospheric conditions. Again, some of
the moisture will drop out as liquid condensate.
 The result of both of these situations is a difference

between the dew point at atmospheric conditions
and the dew point at higher pressures.
 Drying compressed air beyond the required

pressure dew point will result in unnecessary
energy and costs.
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – AIR DRYERS
 When air leaves an after-cooler and moisture
separator, it is typically saturated.
 Any further radiant cooling as it passes through the
distribution piping, which may be exposed to colder
temperatures, will cause further condensation of
moisture with detrimental effects, such as corrosion
and contamination of point-of-use processes. This
problem can be avoided by the proper use of
compressed air dryers.
 Different types of compressed air dryers have
different operating characteristics and degrees of
dew point suppression.
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – AIR DRYERS
 Dryer ratings usually are based on standard dryer
inlet conditions, commonly referred to as “the three
100s.” That is, 100 psig, 100°F (inlet compressed air
temperature), and 100°F ambient temperature.
Deviations from these conditions will affect the
capacity of a dryer.
 An increase in inlet temperature or a decrease in

inlet pressure will reduce the dryer’s rated capacity.
Most manufacturers provide correction factors for
this.

DESICCANT AIR DRYERS
 Desiccant dryers utilize chemicals beads, called
desiccant, to adsorb water vapor from compressed
air.
 Silica gel, activated alumina and molecular sieve are
the most common desiccants used. (Silica gel or
activated alumina are the preferred desiccants for
compressed air dryers.)
 The desiccant provides an average -40EF pressure
dew point performance. Molecular sieve is usually
only used in combination with silica gel or activated
alumina on -100EF pressure dew point applications.
DELIQUESCENT AIR DRYERS
 Deliquescent air dryers utilize an absorptive type
chemical, called a desiccant, to provide a 20EF to
25EF dew point suppression below the temperature
of the compressed air entering the dryer.
 The moisture in the compressed air reacts with the

absorptive material to produce a liquid effluent
which is then drained from the dryer.
 Keep in mind that this effluent is typically corrosive

and must be disposed off in accordance with local
regulations.
REFRIGERATED AIR DRYERS
 Refrigerated air dryers remove moisture from the
compressed air through a mechanical refrigeration
system to cool the compressed air and condense
water and lubricant vapor.
 Most refrigerated dryers cool the compressed air to a

temperature of approximately 35EF, resulting in a
pressure dew point range of 33EF - 39EF. Keep in
mind that this range is also the lowest achievable
with a refrigerated design since the condensate
begins to freeze at 32EF.

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – MOISTURE DRAIN TRAPS
 Moisture drain traps that are used for removal of

moisture in the compressed air. These traps
resemble steam traps. Various types of traps used
are manual drain cocks, timer based / automatic
drain valves etc.
 Automatic condensate traps are used to conserve

energy by preventing the loss of air through open
petcocks and valves.
 Poorly maintained traps can waste a lot of

compressed air. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 32
 Manual drain Operators will manually open valves to
discharge condensate. However, this is not automatic, and
unfortunately, too often, manual valves are left open to drain
condensate from moisture separators, intercoolers,
refrigerated dryers, and filters, allowing compressed air to
continually escape into the atmosphere. The relatively
common practice of leaving a manual drain valve cracked
open should not be tolerated because it wastes costly
compressed air.
 Level-operated mechanical traps Float-type traps do not
waste air when operating properly, but they often require a
great deal of maintenance and are prone to blockage from
sediment in the condensate. Inverted bucket traps may
require less maintenance but will waste compressed air if the
condensate rate is inadequate to maintain the liquid level (or
prime) in the trap. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 33
 Electrically operated solenoid valves The solenoid-operated

drain valve has a timing device that can be set to open for a
specified time and at preset adjustable intervals. There are
two issues with using these valves,
 The period during which the valve is open may not be long
enough for adequate drainage of accumulated
condensate.
 The valve will operate even if little or no condensate is
present, resulting in the loss of valuable compressed air.
Level-operated and electrically operated solenoid valves
should have strainers installed to reduce contaminants,
which block the inlet and discharge ports of these
automatic devices.
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – AIR RECEIVER
 Receivers are used to provide compressed air storage capacity
to meet peak demand events and help control system
pressure by controlling the rate of pressure change in a
system.
 Receivers are especially effective for systems with widely

varying compressed air flow requirements. Where peaks are
intermittent, a large air receiver may allow a smaller air
compressor to be used and can allow the capacity control
system to operate more effectively and improve system
efficiency.
 An air receiver after a reciprocating air compressor can

provide dampening of pressure pulsations, radiant cooling,
and collection of condensate.
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – AIR RECEIVER
 Demand-side control will optimize the benefit of the
air receiver storage volume by stabilizing system
header pressure and “flattening” the load peaks.
 Air receivers also play a crucial role in orchestrating
system controls, providing the time needed to start
or avoid starting standby air compressors.
Air receivers avoid overloading purification system
with surges in air demand.
 Air receivers damp out the dew point and
temperature spikes that follow regeneration

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – LUBRICATION
 In lubricant-injected rotary screw compressors, lubricants are
designed to cool, seal, and lubricate moving parts for
enhanced performance and longer wear. Important
considerations for compressor lubricants include proper
application and compatibility with downstream equipment,
including piping, hoses, and seals.
 A lubricator may be installed near a point-of-use to lubricate

items such as pneumatic tools. The lubricator may be
combined with a filter and a pressure regulator to make up
what is commonly called a FRL (filter-regulator-lubricator).
 The lubricant should be that specified by the point-of-use

equipment manufacturer.
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – HEAT RECOVERY
 Compressing air generates heat. In fact, industrial
sized air compressors generate a substantial amount
of heat that can be recovered and put to useful work.
 More than 80 percent of the electrical energy going

to a compressor becomes available heat.
 Heat can be recovered and used for producing hot

water or hot air.

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM – AIR DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
 The air distribution system links the various components of
the compressed air system to deliver air to the points-of-use
with minimal pressure loss.
 The specific configuration of a distribution system depends on

the needs of the individual plant, but frequently consists of an
extended network of main lines, branch lines, valves, and air
hoses.
 The length of the network should be kept to a minimum to

reduce pressure drop. Air distribution piping should be large
enough in diameter to minimize pressure drop.
 A loop system is generally recommended, with all piping

sloped to accessible drop legs and drain points.
SYSTEM
 When designing an air distribution system layout, it
is best to place the air compressor and its related
accessories where temperature inside the plant is
the lowest.
 A projection of future demands and tie-ins to the
existing distribution system should also be
considered. Air leaks are an important issue with
distribution system
 It is important to note that the majority of system
leakage will be at the point of use and not in the
distribution piping.
SYSTEM
 Headers should have a slight slope to allow drainage
of condensate and drop legs from the bottom side of
the header should be provided to allow collection
and drainage of the condensate. The direction of the
slope should be away from the compressor.
 Piping from the header to points-of-use should

connect to the top or side of the header to avoid
being filled with condensate. Drainage-drop legs
from the bottom of the header should be installed to
collect the condensate.
TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF "POSITIVE
DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR"?
A type of compressor that delivers

a fixed volume of air at high
pressures. Common types of
positive displacement compressors
include piston compressors and
rotary screw compressors.

WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF "DYNAMIC
COMPRESSOR"?
A type of compressor that delivers

larger volumes of air at lower
pressures. Common types of
dynamic compressors include
centrifugal and axial compressors.

CHOICE OF COMPRESSORS
Depends on User requirement
 Quantity of air required
 Up to 1000 cfm – Reciprocating and Screw
 Beyond 1000 cfm – Screw & Centrifugal
Quality of air
 Oil free air
 Dryness requirement
Air Pressure required
Variation in usage
 Utilise Demand and Supply side controllers
 Variable Frequency Drives
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
 Used for air and refrigerant
compression
 Works like a bicycle pump: cylinder
volume reduces while pressure
increases, with pulsating output
 Many configurations available
 Single acting when using one side of
the piston, and double acting when
using both sides
 Sizes vary from < 1 hp to > 600 hp.

AIR COMPRESSOR

 Reciprocating air compressors are positive displacement
compressors. This means they are taking in successive
volumes of air which is confined within a closed space and
elevating this air to a higher pressure.
 The reciprocating air compressor accomplishes this by using a

piston within a cylinder as the compressing and displacing
element.
 The reciprocating air compressor uses a number of automatic

spring loaded valves in each cylinder that open only when the
proper differential pressure exists across the valve. Inlet
valves open when the pressure in the cylinder is slightly below
the intake pressure. Discharge valves open when the pressure
in the cylinder is slightly above the discharge pressure.
 A compressor is considered to be single stage when the entire
compression is accomplished with a single cylinder or a group
of cylinders in parallel.
 Many applications involve conditions beyond the practical

capability of a single compression stage. Too great a
compression ratio (absolute discharge pressure/absolute
intake pressure) may cause excessive discharge temperature
or other design problems.
 For practical purposes most plant air reciprocating air

compressors over 100 horsepower are built as multi-stage
units in which two or more steps of compression are grouped
in series. The air is normally cooled between the stages to
reduce the temperature and volume entering the following
stage.
SINGLE ACTING AIR COOLED RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSORS
Disadvantages
 Lubricant carryover as piston rings
Advantages wear, which should be avoided
 Relatively high noise
 Small size and weight  Relatively high cost of compression
 Generally can be located  Generally are designed to run not
close to point-of-use more than 50 percent of the time,
although some can be at 80 percent
avoiding lengthy piping runs
 Generally compress and store the air
and pressure drops in a receiver at a pressure higher
 Do not require separate than required at the point-of use.
 The pressure then is reduced to the
cooling systems
required operating pressure but
 Simple maintenance without recovery of the energy used
procedures. to compress to the higher pressure.
 Operating Efficiency: 22 to 24
kW/100 cfm*

DOUBLE ACTING WATER COOLED
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Disadvantages
Advantages
 Efficient compression,  Relatively high first cost compared with
equivalent rotary air compressors
particularly with multi-stage
 Relatively high space requirements
compressors
 Lubricant carryover on lubricant cooled units
 Relatively high vibrations require high

 Three-step (0-50-100 foundation costs
percent) or five-step (0-25-
 Seldom sold as complete independent
50-75-100 percent) capacity packages
controls, allowing efficient  Require flywheel mass to overcome torque
part-load operation and current pulsations in motor driver
 Repair procedures require some training and

skills.
 Relatively routine
 Operating Efficiency: 15 to 16 kW/100 cfm*
maintenance procedures.
. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 51
ROTARY COMPRESSOR – SINGLE STAGE
 Rotary air compressors are positive
displacement compressors. The most common
rotary air compressor is the single stage helical
or spiral lobe oil flooded screw air compressor.
 These compressors consist of two rotors within a

casing where the rotors compress the air
internally. There are no valves.
 These units are basically oil cooled (with air

cooled or water cooled oil coolers) where the oil
seals the internal clearances. Since the cooling
takes place right inside the compressor, the
working parts never experience extreme
operating temperatures.
 The rotary compressor, therefore, is a

continuous duty, air cooled or water cooled
compressor package. Because of the simple
design and few wearing parts, rotary screw air
compressors are easy to maintain, operate and
provide great installation flexibility.
 Rotary air compressors can be installed on any

surface that will support the static weight
52
ROTARY COMPRESSORS – 2 STAGE
 The two stage oil flooded rotary screw air
compressor uses pairs of rotors in a combined air
end assembly. Compression is shared between the
first and second stages flowing in series. This
increases the overall compression efficiency up to
fifteen percent of the total full load kilowatt
consumption.
 The two stage rotary air compressor combines the
simplicity and flexibility of a rotary screw compressor
with the energy efficiency of a two stage double
acting reciprocating air compressor. Two stage rotary
screw air compressors are available air cooled and
water cooled and fully packages.
LUBRICANT INJECTED ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSORS
Advantages Disadvantages
 Compact size and complete  Less efficient full and part load
package operation compared with
water-cooled reciprocating air
 Economic first cost compressors
 Vibration-free operation  Lubricant carryover into
does not require special delivered air requires proper
foundation maintenance of air/lubricant
 Part-load capacity control separator and the lubricant
systems can match system itself.
demand  Operating Efficiency:
 Routine maintenance  18 to 19 kW/100 cfm,
includes lubricant and filter single-stage
changes.  16 to 17 kW/100 cfm, two-
54
Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. stage
OIL FREE ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSORS
 The oil free rotary screw air compressor utilizes
specially designed air ends to compress air without
oil in the compression chamber yielding true oil free
air. Oil free rotary screw air compressors are available
air cooled and water cooled and provide the same
flexibility as oil flooded rotaries when oil free air is
required.
 Rotary screw air compressors are available air cooled
and water cooled, oil flooded and oil free, single
stage and two stage. There is a wide range of
availability in configuration and in pressure and
capacity
ROTARY COMPRESSOR

LUBRICANT FREE ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSORS
Disadvantages
 Significant premium over
lubricant injected type.
Advantages
 Completely packaged  Less efficient than lubricant-
injected type.
 Designed to deliver  Limited to load/unload

capacity control and VSD.
lubricant-free air
 Higher maintenance costs
than lubricant-injected
 Do not require any type over the life of the
special foundations. machine.
 Operating Efficiency: 18 to
22 kW/100 cfm*
CENTRIFUGAL AIR COMPRESSORS
 The centrifugal air compressor is a dynamic compressor which
depends on transfer of energy from a rotating impeller to the
air. The rotor accomplishes this by changing the momentum
and pressure of the air. This momentum is converted to useful
pressure by slowing the air down in a stationary diffuser
(stator).
 The centrifugal air compressor is an oil free compressor by
design. The oil lubricated running gear is separated from the
air by shaft seals and atmospheric vents.
 The centrifugal is a continuous duty compressor, with few
moving parts, that is particularly suited to high volume
applications, especially where oil free air is required.
 Centrifugal air compressors are water cooled and may be
packaged; typically the package includes the after-cooler and
all controls. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 59
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR



Advantages Disadvantages
 Completely packaged for  Limited capacity control
plant or instrument air up modulation, requiring
through 500 hp unloading for reduced
capacities.
 Relative first cost improves
as size increases  High rotational speeds
require special bearings,
 Designed to deliver sophisticated monitoring of
lubricant-free air vibrations and clearances.
 Do not require any special  Specialized maintenance

foundations. considerations.
 Operating Efficiency: 16 to
20 kW/100 cfm*
 Energy Efficient
 Higher than
Reciprocating and
Screw
 Ideal if user demand

equals compressor
capacity
 Efficient at 60-90% flow

range

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR BEHAVIOR BASED
ON CAPACITY AND OPERATING PRESSURE

COMPRESSOR PRIME MOVERS
 The prime mover is the main power source providing
energy to drive the compressor.
 The oldest compressor prime movers have been a steam
engine or turbine. In general, it is not economical to use
a steam engine or turbine unless the steam is
inexpensively and readily available within the plant.
 This power can be provided by any one of the following
sources: electric motors, diesel or natural gas engines,
steam turbines and combustion turbines. Electric motors
are by far the most common prime mover.
 Electric motors are a widely available and economical
means of providing reliable and efficient power to
compressors.
 Most compressors use standard, poly phase induction motors.
In many cases, either a standard or a premium-efficient motor
can be specified when purchasing a compressor or
replacement motor.
 The incremental cost of the premium efficient motor is typically
recovered in a very short time from the resulting energy
savings.
 When replacing a standard motor with a premium-efficient
version, attention should be paid to parameters like full-load
speed and torque.
 A replacement motor with performance as close as possible to
the original motor should be used. When replacing a drive
motor in a compressor that uses a variable frequency drive as
part of the control system, use an inverter-duty motor.
 Diesel or natural gas engines are common compressor power
sources in the oil and gas industries. Considerations such as
convenience, cost, and the availability of liquid fuel and
natural gas play a role in selecting an engine to power a
compressor.
 Although the majority of industrial compressed air systems
use electric motors for prime movers, in recent years there
has been renewed interest in using non-electric drives, such
as reciprocating engines powered by natural gas, particularly
in regions with high electricity rates.
 Standby or emergency compressors may also be engine-
driven to allow operation in the event of a loss of electrical
power. Maintenance costs for engine-driven systems are
significantly higher than those that use electric motors.
COMPARISON OF COMPRESSORS
 Efficiency at full, partial and no load

 Noise level
 Size
 Oil carry-over
 Vibration
 Maintenance
 Capacity
 Pressure
CAPACITY OF A COMPRESSOR
 Capacity: full rated volume of flow of

compressed gas
 Actual flow rate: Free Air Delivery (FAD)
 FAD reduced by ageing, poor maintenance,
fouled heat exchanger and altitude.
 Energy loss: percentage deviation of FAD
capacity

CALCULATING COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY
If input power to the compressor in watts, the output flow rate in liters per minute,
and the output pressure in bar (absolute), then
Efficiency = power output/power input = (V * 100 * ln (P))/Input
Where v is output flow rate in liters per second referenced to atmospheric pressure,
P is pressure in bar, and input is power to the compressor in watts. This also assumes
that the input air is roughly atmospheric pressure and near room temperature, and
the output air has cooled back to near room temperature.
A rule of thumb is that 1 hp into a compressor will generate 4cfm at 100psi. Let’s see
what efficiency that is.
1 cfm = 1cu ft * 28.3 liter/cu ft * 1 minute/60 second = 0.472 liters per sec
100 psig = 115psia = 7.9 bar absolute, 4 cfm = 4*0.472 lps = 1.89 lps
1.89 * 100 * log-natural (7.9) = 390 watts of output power
1 horsepower = 746 watts. Therefore 390/746 = 52% efficiency

ISOTHERMAL EFFICIENCY OF A COMPRESSOR
 Isothermal efficiency = (Actual measured input

power ) / (Isothermal power)
 Isothermal power (kW) = {P1 x Q1 x loge (P2 / P1) } /

36.7 where,
P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg / cm2
Q1 = Free air delivered m3 / hr

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF A COMPRESSOR
 Volumetric efficiency = (FAD in m3 / min) /
(compressor displacement)
 Compressor displacement = ∏ x (D2/4) x L x S x N x n
where,
D = Cylinder bore, meter
L = Cylinder stroke, meter
S = Compressor speed rpm
N = 1 for single acting and 2 for double acting
cylinders
n = No. of cylinders

Leaks
 Consequences
Energy waste: 20 – 30% of output
Drop in system pressure
Shorter equipment life
 Common leakage areas
Couplings, hoses, tubes, fittings
Pressure regulators
Open condensate traps, shut-off valves
Pipe joints, disconnects, thread sealants
Defining and Quantifying leakage
Defining leakage
 Leakage (%) = [On load time / (On load + Off load time)] x 100
 Well maintained system: less than 10% leakages
Quantifying leakage
 Shut off compressed air operated equipments
 Run compressor to charge the system to set pressure of
operation
 Note the time taken for “Load” and “Unload” cycles
 Calculate quantity of leakage
 If Q is actual free air supplied during trial (m3/min), then -
 System leakage (m3/minute) = Q x [On load time / (On
load + Off load time)]
Example of how to calculate leakage
Given parameters
 Compressor capacity (m3/minute) = 35
 Cut in pressure, kg/cm2 = 6.8
 Cut out pressure, kg/cm2 = 7.5
 Load kW drawn = 188 kW
 Unload kW drawn = 54 kW
 Average ‘Load’ time =1.5 min
 Average ‘Unload’ time = 10.5 min
 Leakage = [(1.5)/(1.5+10.5)] x 35 = 4.375 m3/minute
Cost of leakage at 7 kg / cm2
Source - CII
LEAK DETECTION
 Since air leaks are almost impossible to see, other
methods must be used to locate them.
 A simpler method is to apply soapy water with a
paint brush to suspect areas. Although reliable, this
method can be time consuming.
 The best way to detect leaks is to use an ultrasonic
acoustic detector, which can recognize the high-
frequency hissing sounds associated with air leaks.
 These portable units consist of directional
microphones, amplifiers, and audio filters, and
usually have either visual indicators or earphones to
detect leaks. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 80
ULTRASONIC LEAK DETECTION
 Ultrasonic leak detection is probably the most versatile form
of leak detection. Because of its capabilities, it is readily
adapted to a variety of leak detection situations.
 The principle behind ultrasonic leak detection is simple. In a

pressure or vacuum leak, the leak flows from a high-pressure
laminar flow to a low-pressure turbulence.
 The turbulence generates a wide noise which contains a

broad spectrum of sound ranging from audible to inaudible
frequencies.
 An ultrasonic sensor focuses in on the ultrasonic elements in

the noise. Because ultrasound is a short wave signal, the
sound level will be loudest at the leak site.

 Ultrasonic detectors are generally unaffected by
background noises in the audible range because
these signals are filtered out. Ultrasonic detectors
can find mid to large sized leaks.
 The advantages of ultrasonic leak detection include
versatility, speed, ease of use, the ability to perform
tests while equipment is running, and the ability to
find a wide variety of leaks.
 They require a minimum of training, and operators
often become competent after 15 minutes of
training.
 Because of its nature, ultrasound is directional in

transmission. For this reason, the signal is
loudest at its source. By generally scanning
around a test area, it is possible to very quickly
hone it on a leak site and pin point its location.
 For this reason, ultrasonic leak detection is not

only fast, it is also very accurate.

HOW TO STOP LEAKS
 Leaks occur most often at joints and connections.
 Stopping leaks can be as simple as tightening a connection or

as complex as replacing faulty equipment, such as couplings,
fittings, pipe sections, hoses, joints, drains, and traps.
 In many cases, leaks are caused by failing to clean the threads

or by bad or improperly applied thread sealant. Select high
quality fittings, disconnects, hose, tubing, and install them
properly with appropriate thread sealant.
 Non-operating equipment can be an additional source of leaks.

Equipment no longer in use should be isolated with a valve in
the distribution system.
HOW TO STOP LEAKS
 Another way to reduce leaks is to lower the air
pressure of the system. The lower the pressure
differential across an orifice or leak, the lower the
rate of flow, so reduced system pressure will result in
reduced leakage rates.
 Stabilizing the system header pressure at its lowest

practical range will minimize the leakage rate for the
system.
 Once leaks have been repaired, the compressor

control system must be re-evaluated to realize the
total savings potential.
SIMPLE CAPACITY ASSESSMENT METHOD
 Isolate compressor and receiver and close

receiver outlet
 Empty the receiver and the pipeline from

P2 = Final pressure after
water
filling (kg/cm2a)
P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm2a)  Start the compressor and activate the
after bleeding)
stopwatch
P0 = Atmospheric pressure
(kg/cm2a)
V = Storage volume in m3 which
 Note time taken to attain the normal
includes receiver, after cooler and operational pressure P2 (in the receiver)
delivery piping from initial pressure P1
T = Time take to build up
pressure to P2 in minutes
 Calculate the capacity FAD
COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY
 Most practical
 Specific power consumption (kW / volume flow
rate)
 Other methods
 Isothermal
 Volumetric
 Adiabatic
 Mechanical

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
OPPORTUNITY ROADMAP

AIR QUALITY
 Industrial applications typically use one of the

first three air quality levels.
 Quality is determined by the dryness and

contaminant level required by the end uses, and
is accomplished with filtering and drying
equipment. The higher the quality, the more the
air costs to produce.
 Higher quality air usually requires additional

equipment, which not only increases initial
capital investment, but also makes the overall
system more expensive to operate in terms of
energy consumption and maintenance costs.
 Over-treating air beyond the required dryness

and allowable contaminant level wastes money
and energy.

AIR QUALITY
 One of the main factors in determining air quality is
whether or not lubricant-free air is required. Lubricant
free air can be produced with either lubricant-free
compressors, or with lubricant-injected compressors that
have additional separation and filtration equipment.
 Lubricant-free rotary screw and reciprocating compressors
usually have higher first costs, lower efficiency, and higher
maintenance costs than lubricant-injected compressors.
 However, the additional separation and filtration
equipment required by lubricant-injected compressors will
cause some reduction in efficiency, particularly if systems
are not properly maintained.

AIR QUALITY AND COMPRESSES AIR CONTAMINANTS
 Before selecting a lubricant-free or lubricant-injected

compressor, careful consideration should be given to the
specific end use for the lubricant free air, including the risk
and cost associated with product contamination.
 Compressed air contaminants can be in the form of solids,
liquids, or vapors. Contaminants can enter a compressed air
system at the compressor intake, or can be introduced into
the air stream by the system itself.
 Air quality class is determined by the maximum particle size,
pressure dew point, and maximum oil content allowed. For
more information, see ISO 8573-1 Compressed Air Quality
Classes in the Compressed Air System Best Practices Manual.

AIR QUANTITY
 The required compressed air system volume can be
determined by summing the requirements of your
compressed air applications and process operations
(taking into account load factors) and the duration of
such volumes by those applications.
 The total air requirement is not the sum of the
maximum requirements for each tool and process,
but the sum of the average air consumption of each.
 In most cases, a thorough evaluation of system
demand may result in a control strategy that will
meet system demand with reduced overall
compressor capacity
AIR QUANTITY
 Oversized air compressors are extremely inefficient
because most compressors use more energy per unit
volume of air produced when operating at part-load.
 In many cases, it makes sense to use multiple,
smaller compressors with sequencing controls to
allow for efficient operation at times when demand
is less than peak
 If a system is properly designed and maintained but
is still experiencing capacity problems, an alternative
to adding another compressor is to re-examine the
use of compressed air for certain applications. For
some tasks, blowers or electric tools may be more
effective or appropriate.
AIR QUANTITY
High short-term demands should be

met by air stored in an air receiver.
Systems may need more than one air
receiver. Strategically locating air
receivers near sources of high
demand can also be effective.

LOAD PROFILE
 Another key to properly designing and operating a

compressed air system is analyzing a plant’s
compressed air requirements over time, or load
profile.
 The variation of demand for air over time is a major
consideration in system design.
 Plants with wide variations in air demand need a
system that operates efficiently under part-load.
 Multiple compressors with sequencing controls may
prove to be more economical.
ARTIFICIAL DEMAND
 Artificial demand is defined as the excess

volume of air that is required by unregulated end
uses as a result of supplying higher pressure
than necessary for applications.
 Pressure/flow controllers can help to minimize

artificial demand.

SYSTEM PRESSURE
 Different tools and process operations require different
pressures. Pneumatic tool manufacturers rate tools for
specific pressures, and process operation pressure
requirements should be specified by the process
engineers
 Required pressure levels must take into account system
losses from dryers, separators, filters, and piping.
 A rule of thumb for systems in the 100 pounds per
square inch gauge (psig) range is: for every 2 pounds per
square inch (psi) increase in discharge pressure, energy
consumption will increase by approximately 1 percent at
full output flow (check performance curves for
centrifugal and two-stage, lubricant-injected, rotary
screw compressors).Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd.
97
SYSTEM PRESSURE
There is also another penalty for higher-

than-needed pressure. Raising the
compressor discharge pressure increases
the demand of every unregulated usage,
including leaks, open blowing, etc.
Although it varies by plant, unregulated

usage is commonly as high as 30 to 50
percent of air demand.

PRESSURE DROP AND CONTROLLING SYSTEM PRESSURE
 Pressure drop is a term used to characterize the reduction
in air pressure from the compressor discharge to the actual
point-of-use. Pressure drop occurs as the compressed air
travels through the treatment and distribution system.
 A properly designed system should have a pressure loss of
much less than 10 percent of the compressor’s discharge
pressure, measured from the receiver tank output to the
point-of-use.
 Excessive pressure drop will result in poor system
performance and excessive energy consumption.
 Flow restrictions of any type in a system require higher
operating pressures than are needed, resulting in higher
energy consumption.
99
 Minimizing differentials in all parts of the system is an
important part of efficient operation.
 Pressure drop upstream of the compressor signal
requires higher compression pressures to achieve the
control settings on the compressor.
 The most typical problem areas include the after-
cooler, lubricant separators, and check valves.
 A rule of thumb for systems in the 100 psig range is: for
every 2 psi increase in discharge pressure, energy
consumption will increase by approximately 1 percent
at full output flow (check performance curves for
centrifugal and two-stage, lubricant-injected, rotary
screw compressors). 100
 There is also another penalty for higher-than-needed
pressure. Raising the compressor discharge pressure
increases the demand of every unregulated usage, including
leaks, open blowing, etc.
 Although it varies by plant, unregulated usage is commonly
as high as 30 to 50 percent of air demand. For systems in
the 100 psig range with 30 to 50 percent unregulated usage,
a 2 psi increase in header pressure will increase energy
consumption by about another 0.6 to 1.0 percent because
of the additional unregulated air being consumed.
 The combined effect results in a total increase in energy
consumption of about 1.6 to 2 percent for every 2 psi
increase in discharge pressure for a system in the 100 psig
range with 30 to 50 percent unregulated usage.
101
 An air compressor capacity control pressure signal is normally
located at the discharge of the compressor package.
 When the signal location is moved downstream of the

compressed air dryers and filters to achieve a common signal
for all compressors, some dangers must be recognized and
precautionary measures taken.
 The control range pressure setting must be reduced to allow

for actual and potentially increasing pressure drop across the
dryers and filters.
 Provision also must be made to prevent exceeding the

maximum allowable discharge pressure and drive motor amps
of each compressor in the system.
 Pressure drop in the distribution system and in hoses
and flexible connections at points-of-use results in
lower operating pressure at the points-of-use.
 If the point-of-use operating pressure has to be
increased, try reducing the pressure drops in the
system before adding capacity or increasing the
system pressure.
 Increasing the compressor discharge pressure or
adding compressor capacity results in significant
increases in energy consumption. Elevating system
pressure increases unregulated uses, such as leaks,
open blowing, and production applications, without
regulators or with wide open regulators. 103
 The added demand at elevated pressure is termed

“artificial demand,” and substantially increases
energy consumption.
 Instead of increasing the compressor discharge

pressure or adding additional compressor capacity,
alternative solutions should be sought, such as
reduced pressure drop and strategic compressed air
storage.
 Equipment should be specified and operated at the

lowest efficient operating pressure
WHAT CAUSES PRESSURE DROP ?
• Any type of obstruction, restriction, or roughness in
the system will cause resistance to air flow and cause
pressure drop. In the distribution system, the highest
pressure drops usually are found at the points-of-use,
including undersized or leaking hoses, tubes,
disconnects, filters, regulators and lubricators (FRLs).
• On the supply side of the system, air/lubricant
separators, after-coolers, moisture separators, dryers
and filters can be the main items causing significant
pressure drops.
• The maximum pressure drop from the supply side to
the points-of-use will occur when the compressed air
flow rate and temperature are highest.
 System components should be selected based upon
these conditions and the manufacturer of each
component should be requested to supply pressure
drop information under these conditions.
 When selecting filters, remember that they will get

dirty. Dirt loading characteristics are also important
selection criteria.
 Large end users who purchase substantial quantities

of components should work with their suppliers to
ensure that products meet the desired specifications
for differential pressure and other characteristics.
 The distribution piping system often is diagnosed as having
excess pressure drop because a point-of-use pressure
regulator cannot sustain the required downstream pressure.
 If such a regulator is set at 85 psig and the regulator and/or
the upstream filter has a pressure drop of 20 psi, the system
upstream of the filter and regulator would have to maintain at
least 105 psig.
 The 20 psi pressure drop may be blamed on the system piping
rather than on the components at fault. The correct diagnosis
requires pressure measurements at different points in the
system to identify the component(s) causing the excess
pressure drop.
 In this case, the filter element should be replaced of the filter
regulator size needs to be increased, not the piping.
MINIMIZING PRESSURE DROP
 Minimizing pressure drop Steps to follow
requires a systems approach  Properly design the distribution
system.
in design and maintenance  Operate and maintain air filtering and
of the system. drying equipment to reduce the
effects of moisture, such as pipe
 Air treatment components, corrosion.
such as after-coolers,  Select after-coolers, separators,
dryers and filters having the lowest
moisture separators, dryers, possible pressure drop for the rated
and filters, should be conditions.
selected with the lowest  Reduce the distance the air travels
possible pressure drop at through the distribution system.
specified maximum  Specify pressure regulators,
lubricators, hoses, and connections
operating conditions. having the best performance
characteristics at the lowest pressure
 When installed, the differential.
recommended maintenance  These components must be sized
procedures should be based upon the actual rate of flow
and not the average rate of flow.
followed and documented. 108
ANALYSING COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS WITH
BLOCK DIAGRAMS
 Two simple tools that are available to help analyze
compressed air systems are block diagrams and
pressure profiles. Block diagrams identify all the
components in the system.

MEASUREMENTS NECESSARY FOR PRESSURE
PROFILING A COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM
 Another way to analyze a The following pressure measurements
compressed air system is to should be taken:
draw a pressure profile. A  Inlet to compressor (to monitor inlet
air filter) versus atmospheric
pressure profile shows the
pressure
pressure drops through a  Differential across air/lubricant
system. separator (if applicable)
 Inter-stage on multi-stage
 These pressure measurements compressors
give feedback for control Consider pressure differentials including
adjustments, determine After cooler
pressure drops across  Treatment equipment (dryers, filters,
components, and help etc.)
determine system operating  Various points of the distribution
pressures. The tools required system
for measurement are matched,  Check pressure differentials against
manufacturers’ specifications, if
calibrated pressure gauges or available (high-pressure drops
differential pressure gauges. indicate service is required). 110
Flow to System
Pressure
PRESSURE PROFILE DURING A DEFINED TIME PERIOD – AN EXAMPLE

PRESSURE PROFILING A SYSTEM
This method gives the pressure
profile at a single point in time.
Taking data at a single point, or even
during various shifts, can provide
some answers, but not the complete
picture.
The use of data loggers is important

in determining how a system
operates over time. Data logging
system pressures and flow can
indicate intermittent loads, system
disruptions and general system
conditions. It can also indicate
system changes (e.g. production
process changes or air leaks) that
can affect the compressed air system
operation and efficiency.
These variations in pressure and

flow can be managed through
system control strategies and storage
to minimize their impact on 112
production. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd.
CONTROL STRATEGY – MATCHING DEMAND AND SUPPLY
 With compressed air systems, system dynamics
(changes in demand over time) are especially
important.
 Using controls, storage, and demand management to
effectively design a system that meets peak
requirements but also operates efficiently at part-load
is key to a high performance compressed air system.
 In many systems, compressor controls are not
coordinated to meet the demand requirements, which
can result in compressors operating in conflict with
each other, short-cycling, or blowing off all signs of
inefficient system operation.
CONTROL STRATEGY – INDIVIDUAL
COMPRESSOR CONTROLS
 Over the years, compressor manufacturers have developed a
number of different types of control strategies.
 Controls such as start/stop and load/unload respond to

reductions in air demand by turning the compressor off or
unloading it so that it does not deliver air for periods of time.
 Modulating inlet and multi-step controls allow the

compressor to operate at part-load and deliver a reduced
amount of air during periods of reduced demand.
 Variable speed controls reduce the speed of the compressor

in low demand periods. Compressors running at part-load are
generally less efficient than when they are run at full-load.
SYSTEM CONTROLS
System controls are one of the Single Unit Controls
most important elements of a  Start/stop – turns compressors on and
compressed air system, and are off according to discharge pressure.
 Load/unload – leaves motor running
also a central factor in air continuously, but unloads compressor
compressor system efficiency. according to discharge pressure.
 Modulating – controls inlet volume to
Controls are designed to match satisfy flow need.
the compressor output with the  Multistep – for compressors designed to
system demand. Controls may operate at multiple partially loaded
manage a single air compressor, conditions.
or involve the orchestration of System Controls
multiple air compressors to  Sequencing – orchestrates compressors
to meet demand by taking compressors
satisfy system needs. off-line, or starting compressors to meet
total system load.
Several types of system controls  Network controls – orchestrates the
exist that may help to increase controls for both individual compressors
the efficiency of your system. and the entire system.
Control strategy – Multiple compressor controls
 Systems with multiple compressors should use more
sophisticated controls to orchestrate compressor
operation and air delivery to the system.
 Network controls use the on-board compressor
controls’ microprocessors linked together to form a
chain of communication that makes decisions to
stop/start, load/unload, modulate, and vary
displacement and speed.
 Usually, one compressor assumes the lead role with
the others being subordinate to the commands from
this compressor. System master controls coordinate
all of the functions necessary to optimize
compressed air as a utility. 116
Control strategy – Multiple compressor controls
System master controls have many functional

capabilities, including the ability to monitor
and control all components in the system, as
well as trending data, to enhance
maintenance functions and minimize costs of
operation.
Most multiple compressor controls operate
the appropriate number of compressors at
full-load and have one compressor trimming
(running at part-load) to match supply with
demand. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 117
Control strategy – Pressure/Flow controllers
 Pressure/Flow Controllers (P/FC) are system pressure
controls that can be used in conjunction with the
individual and multiple compressor controls
described above.
 A P/FC does not directly control a compressor and is
generally not part of a compressor package.
 A P/FC is a device that serves to separate the supply
side of a compressor system from the demand side,
and requires the use of storage.
 P/FCs use the principle of operating compressors to
fill and store air in receivers at higher pressures.
 P/FCs then reduce the pressure and supply it to the
system at the pressure required by that system’s
compressed air applications.
 P/FCs work with pilot-operated regulators or

electronic controls to sense and monitor the system’s
pressure downstream of the valves.
 Controlled pressure and adequate upstream storage

are critical to satisfactory performance.

 P/FCs normally respond rapidly to demand
fluctuations and maintain system pressure within a
narrow band.
 For peak demand events, sufficient storage is

necessary to release the stored air quickly into the
system to maintain required downstream pressures
within an acceptable tolerance.
 With proper design and system controls, storage can

be used to meet air demand and reduce compressor
run time
Control strategy for variable loads
 Controlled storage can be used to address
intermittent loads, which can affect system pressure
and reliability.
 The goal is to deliver compressed air at the lowest

stable pressure to the main plant distribution system
and to support transient events as much as possible
with stored compressed air.
 In general, a highly variable demand load will require

a more sophisticated control strategy to maintain
stable system pressure than a consistent, steady
demand load. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 121
Stabilizing system pressure
 Stabilizing system pressure is an important way to
lower energy costs and maintain reliable production
and product quality.
 The need to stabilize system pressure should be

guided by the compressed air demand patterns and
the minimum acceptable pressure level required for
reliable production.
 High-volume intermittent air demand events can

cause air pressure to fluctuate, which is often
misinterpreted as insufficient pressure.
Stabilizing system pressure
 In some cases, improperly set compressor controls
will cause another compressor to start, but because
of the time required for the new compressor to ramp
up, there will be a shortfall of air supply to the
system.
 Such a delay can cause the system pressure to decay,

resulting in lost production. Three methods can be
used to stabilize system pressure: adequate primary
and secondary storage, Pressure/Flow Controllers
(P/FCs), and dedicated compressors.

Stabilizing system pressure - Importance of
Primary and Secondary Storage
 One or more compressed air applications having
large, intermittent air demands can cause severe,
dynamic pressure fluctuations in the whole system,
with some essential points of use experiencing
inadequate pressure.
 Such demand is often of short duration; properly

sized primary and secondary storage can supply the
needs of the intermittent demand. The time interval
between the demand events is adequate to restore
the storage receiver pressure without adding
compressor capacity.
Primary and Secondary storage can…
1. Prevent frequent loading and unloading of compressors
2. Collect condensate, which may be carried over from the
after cooler and moisture separator
3. Provide some radiant cooling to reduce moisture
content and air dryer load if located in a cool location
and installed upstream of the dryer
4. Provide dampening of pressure pulsations from
reciprocating compressors.
5. Secondary storage receivers can be used to supplement
the primary receivers to stabilize system pressure and
thus keep unneeded compressors from starting
6. Supply adequate compressed air for a single
intermittent event of a known duration.
Stabilizing system pressure - Other aspects of
primary and secondary storage
 The secondary receiver should be located as close to the end
use as is practicable and its pressure rating must be at least
equal to that of the primary receiver(s).
 Pressure fluctuations may also occur due to inadequate
storage or because the system pressure is at or near the
lowest level of the compressor pressure control band.
 If a large, intermittent demand event occurs when the
pressure is at or near the lowest level in the control band, the
pressure in the distribution piping falls even further, affecting
critical end-use applications.
 In such a case, the installation of a relatively small receiver
with a check valve upstream of the application causing the
demand event may address the problem.
Stabilizing system pressure – Dedicated
compressors
 Applications some distance from the main compressor
supply or those with pressure requirements that differ
from the main system requirements may be served by a
dedicated compressor.
 Small or unit type compressors (generally up to 10 hp
maximum) can be very suitable for an application whose
pressure level is higher than that of the plant’s other
applications.
 Generally, such compressors can be located close to a
point of use, avoiding lengthy piping runs and pressure
drops; are adaptable to a wide range of conditions such
as temperature, altitude, and humidity; and do not
require separate cooling systems. 127
Ensuring efficiency of compressed air end-use
applications

Heat recovery and compressed air systems
 As much as 80 to 93 percent of the electrical energy used
by an industrial air compressor is converted into heat. In
many cases, a properly designed heat recovery unit can
recover anywhere from 50 to 90 percent of this available
thermal energy and put it to useful work heating air or
water.
 Typical uses for recovered heat include supplemental
space heating, industrial process heating, water heating,
makeup air heating, and boiler makeup water
preheating.
 Recoverable heat from a compressed air system however,
is usually not hot enough to produce steam directly.
 Heat recovery systems are available for both air and
water-cooled compressors.
129
Rotary Screw Compressor

Heat recovery with air cooled, rotary screw
compressors
 Air-cooled, packaged, rotary screw compressors are very
amenable to heat recovery for space heating or other hot air
uses.
 Ambient atmospheric air is heated by passing it across the
system’s after cooler and lubricant cooler, where it extracts
heat from both the compressed air and the lubricant that is
used to lubricate and cool the compressor.
 Because packaged compressors are typically enclosed in
cabinets and already include heat exchangers and fans, the
only system modifications needed are the addition of ducting
and possibly another fan to handle the duct loading and to
eliminate any back pressure on the compressor cooling fan.
compressors
 These heat recovery systems can be modulated with a simple,
thermostatically controlled hinged vent. When heating is not
required such as in the summer months, the hot air can be
ducted outside the building. The vent can also be
thermostatically regulated to provide a constant temperature
for a heated area.
 Hot air can be used for space heating, industrial drying,
preheating aspirated air for oil burners, or any other
application requiring warm air.
 As a rule, approx 50,000 British thermal units (Btu) per hour
of energy is available for each 100 cfm of capacity (at full-
load). Air temperatures of 30 to 40°F above the cooling air
inlet temperature can be obtained.
 Recovery efficiencies of 80 to 90 percent are common. 132
compressors
 Caution should be applied if the supply air for the compressor
is not from outside, and the recovered heat is used in another
space, because this can cause a decrease in the static pressure
in the cabinet and reduce the efficiency of the compressor. If
outside air is used, some return air may be required to avoid
damaging the compressor with below freezing air.
Heating Water
 Using a heat exchanger, it is also possible to extract waste
heat from the lubricant coolers found in packaged water-
cooled, reciprocating or rotary screw compressors and
produce hot water.
 Depending on design, heat exchangers can heat non-potable
(gray) or potable water. When hot water is not required, the
lubricant is routed to the standard lubricant cooler. 133
Heat recovery with water cooled compressors
 Heat recovery for space heating is not as common
with water-cooled compressors because an extra
stage of heat exchange is required and the
temperature of the available heat is lower.
 Because many water-cooled compressors are quite

large, however, heat recovery for space heating can
be an attractive opportunity.
 Recovery efficiencies of 50 to 60 percent are typical.

Calculating cost of compressed power
Cost (Rs) =
(bhp) x (0.746) x (# of operating hours) x (Rs/kWh) x (% time) x (% full-load bhp)
Motor Efficiency
Where,
bhp—Motor full-load horsepower (frequently higher than the
motor nameplate horsepower—check equipment specification)
0.746—conversion between hp and kW
Percent time—percentage of time running at this operating

level
Percent full-load bhp —bhp as percentage of full-load bhp at

this operating level
Motor efficiency—motor efficiency at this operating level

A typical example for calculating compressor
energy cost
 A typical manufacturing facility has a 200-hp compressor (which requires
215 bhp) that operates for 6800 hours annually. It is fully loaded 85% of
the time (motor efficiency = .95) and unloaded the rest of the time (25%
full-load bhp and motor efficiency = .90). The aggregate electric rate is Rs
4 /kWh.
 Cost when fully loaded =

{(215 bhp) x (0.746) x (6800 hrs) x (Rs 4/kWh) x (0.85) x (1.0)} / 0.95
= Rs 39, 03, 386
 Cost when unloaded =
{(215 bhp) x (0.746) x (6800 hrs) x (Rs 4 /kWh) x (0.15) x (0.25)} / 0.9
= Rs 1,81, 775
 Annual energy cost = Rs 39,03,386 + Rs 1,81,775 = Rs 40,85,161

The 7 step action plan to analyse and improve
your compressed air system
Once
controls Walk
Work with
Measure are through to
your Identify
your adjusted, check for
compresse and fix
baseline re- obvious
d air leaks and
Develop a (kW, measure to preventive Begin
system correct
basic block pressure get more maintenan implement
specialist inappropri
diagram of profile, accurate ce items ation of
to ate uses –
your demand readings of and other continuous
implement know
compresse profile, kW and opportunit improvem
an costs, re-
d air and leak pressures, ies to ent
appropriat measure,
system. load) and and to reduce programs.
e and adjust
calculate determine costs and
compresso controls as
energy use leak load. improve
r control above.
and costs. Recalculate performan
strategy.
energy use ce.
and costs.

Base-lining compressor operating parameters
after condition monitoring
 One way to tell if a compressed air system is well
maintained and operating efficiently is to periodically
baseline its power consumption, pressure, airflow,
and temperature.
 If power use for a given pressure and flow rate
increases, the system’s efficiency is declining. Base-
lining the system will also indicate whether the
compressor is operating at full capacity, and if that
capacity is decreasing over time.
 On new systems, specifications should be recorded
when the system is first installed and is operating
properly. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 138
Tools needed for monitoring and base-lining
compressed air system
 Infrared gun — Infrared guns measure heat radiated from a
piece of equipment in order to determine the surface
temperature.
 Matched, calibrated pressure gauges or differential pressure
gauges.
 Hook-on amp/volt meter (or kW meter).
 Data logger — Data loggers are used in conjunction with other
measurement devices to record multiple readings over a
period of time. Data loggers are used to create plant pressure
and energy consumption profiles, and can be important tools
in developing a control strategy for a compressed air system

Tools needed for monitoring and base-lining
compressed air system
 Ultrasonic leak detector — These portable units
consist of directional microphones, amplifiers, and
audio filters, and usually have either visual indicators
or earphones to detect leaks.
 Flow meter — Factors to consider in selecting flow

meters include type (in-line or insertion), ease of
installation, life cycle cost (including possible
pressure drop, such as orifice plates and
maintenance), and accuracy (repeatability and
turndown range).
Measuring Power for base-lining
 Energy is measured in order to estimate the annual
electricity consumption of a compressed air system.
 A hook-on amp/volt meter or a wattmeter will be
required. The current and voltage into the
compressor should be measured. Full-load and no-
load input power to the compressor should be
measured.
 For three-phase systems, power can be estimated by
the following equation.
kW = (1.73 x volts x amps x power factor) / 1000
 Using a wattmeter provides a direct reading of kW
with no calculation or power factor adjustment.
Measuring Pressure for base-lining
 Pressure is measured to give feedback for control
adjustments, and to determine pressure drops across
equipment. A calibrated pressure gauge is required.
The following pressure measurements should be
taken when base-lining a system,
 Inlet to compressor (monitor inlet filter)
 Differential across air/lubricant separator for a
lubricated rotary compressor
 Inter-stage on multistage machines
 Pressure differentials, including,
After-cooler
Treatment equipment (dryers, filters, etc.)
Various points in the distribution system.
Measuring Flow for base-lining
 Flow meters are necessary to measure total flow and
to determine consumption. Flow should be
measured:
 During various shifts
 As energy saving measures are implemented For
leaks during non-production periods
 Flow meters should be of the mass flow design to
compensate for pressure and temperature variations
and, if practical, should be suitable to measure the
output of each individual compressor in the system.
Note - The mass flow is based upon standard reference
conditions, which should be checked for the specific
instrument used.
Measuring Temperature for base-lining
 Temperature measurements help to indicate if equipment is
operating at peak performance. Generally, equipment that runs
hotter than specified parameters is not performing at peak
efficiency and requires service. The following temperature
measurements should be taken when base-lining a system.
 After-cooler and intercoolers cold temperature difference or
approach temperature of cold water inlet to cooled air
outlet. Because dryers are normally designed at 100°F
maximum inlet air temperature, some remedial action may
be required if after-cooler outlet temperatures exceed 100°F.
 For rotary-lubricated compressors, the air discharge
temperatures must be maintained for reliable compressor
performance. Normal operation requires temperatures
below 200°F
 Inlet air temperature.
Using Power, Pressure, and Flow to base-line
System Performance and Energy Consumption
 Using the techniques described previously, determine both
cfm at psig and energy consumption (kW x hours) per unit of
production. Always correlate to production levels for a true
measure of air compressor system performance.
 Other parameters to monitor over time include,
 cfm at psig per kW
 psig
 Pressure drop across various components.
 The expectation is that energy use will go down, assuming, of
course, that production does not rise with a corresponding
increase in the compressed air loads. If production does not
rise, and the pressure goes up, adjust controls appropriately.
Maintaining air compressors
 Industrial compressed air systems require periodic
maintenance to operate at peak efficiency and minimize
unscheduled downtime.
 Inadequate maintenance can increase energy
consumption via lower compression efficiency, air
leakage, or pressure variability. It also can lead to high
operating temperatures, poor moisture control, excessive
contamination, and unsafe working environments
 To assure the maximum performance and service life of
your compressor, proper maintenance requires daily,
weekly, monthly, quarterly, semi-annual, and annual
procedures strictly based on manufacturer’s
specifications outlined in Compressed Air System Best
Practices Manual
Maintaining air compressors
Most issues are minor and can be corrected

with simple adjustments, cleaning, part
replacement, or elimination of adverse
conditions.
Compressed air system maintenance is similar

to that performed on cars; filters and fluids
are replaced, cooling water is inspected, belts
are adjusted, and leaks are identified and
repaired.
Maintenance – General points
 The main areas of the compressor package that need
maintenance are the compressor, heat exchanger surfaces,
air-lubricant separator, lubricant filter, and air-inlet filter.
 The compressor and inter-cooling surfaces need to be kept
clean and foul-free. If they are dirty, compressor efficiency will
be adversely affected. Fans and water pumps should also be
inspected to ensure that they are operating at peak
performance.
 The air lubricant separator in a lubricant-cooled, rotary screw
compressor generally starts with a 2 to 3 psid pressure drop at
full-load when new. Maintenance manuals usually suggest
changing them when there is about a 10 psid pressure drop
across the separator. In many cases it may make sense to
make an earlier separator replacement, particularly if
electricity prices are high.
148
Maintenance – General points
 The compressor lubricant and lubricant filter should be
changed per manufacturer’s specification. Lubricant can
become corrosive and degrade both the equipment and
system efficiency.
 For lubricant-injected rotary compressors, the lubrication is
provided to bearings, gears, and intermeshing rotor
surfaces. The lubricant also acts as a seal and removes most
of the heat of compression.
 Only a lubricant meeting the manufacturer’s specifications
should be used.
 Inlet filters and inlet piping should also be kept clean. A
dirty filter can reduce compressor capacity and efficiency.
Filters should be maintained at least per manufacturer’s
specifications, taking into account the level of contaminants
149
in the facility’s air. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd.
Maintenance - Lubrication
The two most important aspects of motor maintenance
are lubrication and cleaning.
Lubrication
 Too much lubrication can be just as harmful as too
little and is a major cause of premature motor
failure. Motors should be lubricated per the
manufacturer’s specification, which can be anywhere
from every 2 months to every 18 months, depending
on annual hours of operation and motor speed.
 On motors with bearing grease fittings, the first step
in lubrication is to clean the grease fitting and
remove the drain plug.
Maintenance – Cleaning
 High-quality new grease should be added, and the
motor should run for about an hour before the drain
plug is replaced. This allows excess grease to be
purged from the motor without dripping on the
windings and damaging them
Cleaning
 Since motors need to dissipate heat, it is important
to keep all of the air passages clean and free of
obstruction. For enclosed motors, it is vital that
cooling fins are kept free of debris. Poor motor
cooling can increase motor temperature and winding
resistance, which shortens motor life and increases
energy consumption.
Maintenance - Belts
Belts
Motor V-belt drives also require periodic
maintenance. Tight belts can lead to excessive
bearing wear, and loose belts can slip and
waste energy. Under normal operation, belts
stretch and wear and therefore, require
adjustment.
A good rule of thumb is to examine and adjust
belts after every 400 hours of operation.
Follow manufacturers recommended tension
requirements.
Maintenance – Air treatment equipment
Air treatment equipment

Fouled compressed air treatment
equipment can result in excessive energy
consumption as well as poor-quality air
that can damage other equipment. All
filters should be kept clean. Dryers, after-
coolers, and separators should all be
cleaned and maintained per
manufacturer’s specifications.
Maintenance – Automatic traps
Automatic Traps
 Most compressed air systems have numerous
moisture traps located throughout the system. Traps
need to be inspected periodically to ensure that they
are not stuck in either the open or closed position.
 An automatic trap stuck in the open position will leak

compressed air; a trap stuck in the closed position
will cause condensate to backup and be carried
downstream where it can damage other system
components. Traps stuck in the open position can be
a major source of wasted energy.
Maintenance - Point-of-use filters, regulators,
lubricators
 Point-of-use filters, regulators, and lubricators are
needed to ensure that a tool is receiving a clean,
lubricated supply of air at the proper pressure. Filters
should be inspected periodically because a clogged filter
will increase pressure drop, which can either reduce
pressure at the point-of-use or increase the pressure
required from the compressor, thereby consuming
excessive energy.
 A filter that is not operating properly will also allow
contaminants into a tool, causing it to wear out
prematurely. The lubricant level should also be checked
often enough to ensure that it does not run dry. Tools
that are not properly lubricated will wear prematurely
and use excess energy. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 155
Shutting down for maintenance
1. Disconnect and lockout the main power source. Display
a sign in clear view at the main power switch stating
that the compressor is being serviced.
2. Isolate the compressor from the compressed air supply
by closing a manual shutoff valve downstream (and
upstream, if applicable in booster service) from the
compressor. Display a sign in clear view at the shutoff
valve stating that the compressor is being serviced. Be
certain that a pressure relief valve is installed upstream
of any isolation valve.
3. Lock open a pressure relief valve within the pressurized
system to allow the system to be completely
depressurized. NEVER remove a plug to relieve the
pressure! Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 156
Shutting down for maintenance
4. Shut off the water cooling supply water cooled
compressors).
5. Open all manual drain valves within the area to be

serviced.
6. Wait for the unit to cool before starting to service.

(Temperatures of 125°F can burn skin. Some surface
temperatures exceed 350°F when the compressor is
operating, and just after it is shut down).
7. Refer and give preference to the manufacturer’s

manuals over these typical maintenance procedures
Routine maintenance for air cooled
reciprocating compressors
Every 8 Hours (or Daily) Every 40 Hours (or Weekly)
 Maintain lubricant level between high-  Be certain pressure relief valves are
and low-level marks on bayonet gauge. working.
(Discoloration or a higher lubricant level
reading may indicate the presence of  Clean the cooling surfaces of the
condensed liquids). If lubricant is intercooler and
contaminated, drain and replace.  compressor.
 Drain receiver tank, drop legs and traps in  Check the compressor for air leaks.
the distribution system.
 Check the compressed air
 Give compressor an overall visual
inspection and be sure safety guards are distribution system for leaks.
in place.  Inspect lubricant for contamination
 Check for any unusual noise or vibration. and change if necessary.
 Check lubricant pressure on pressure  Clean or replace the air intake filter.
lubricated units. Check more
 Maintain 18 to 20 psig when compressor  often under humid or dusty
is at operating pressure and temperature.
conditions.
High-pressure rated compressors should
maintain 22 to 25 psig of lubricant Every 160 Hours (or Monthly)
pressure.  Check belt tension.
 Check for lubricant leaks.
reciprocating compressors
Every 500 Hours (or 3 Months)
 Change lubricant (more Every 2,000 Hours (or 12
frequently in harsher Months)
environments).
 Check lubricant filter on pressure  Inspect the pressure
lubricated units (more frequently switch diaphragm and
in harsher environments).
contacts.
 Torque pulley-clamp screws or
jam-nut.  Inspect the contact
Every 1,000 Hours (or 6 Months) points in the motor
 When synthetic lubricant is used, starter.
lubricant change intervals may be
extended to every 1,000 hours or
every 6 months, whichever occurs
first (change more frequently in
harsher conditions).

reciprocating compressors - Lubrication
 Compressors may be shipped without lubricant in the
crankcase. Before starting the compressor, add enough
lubricant to the crankcase to register between the high and
low marks on the dipstick or on bull’s eye sight gauge.
 Use the specified lubricant or consult the manufacturer for
recommendations. Certain synthetic lubricants have proven
under extensive testing to minimize friction and wear, limit
lubricant carryover, and reduce carbon and varnish deposits.
They will support the performance characteristics and life and
are highly recommended.
 Refer to the manufacturer’s specifications to determine the
correct amount of lubricant and viscosity to use for your
model and application. Use the supplier’s lubricant analysis
program Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 160
Routine maintenance for water cooled double
acting reciprocating compressors
Every 8 Hours (or Daily)
 Check compressor lubricant level in crankcase Every 360 Hours (or Monthly)
and cylinder lubricator and, if necessary, add to  Check piston rod packing for leaks
level indicated by sight gauge. and for blow-by at gland. Repair or
 Check cylinder lubrication feed rate and adjust, replace as necessary per
as necessary. manufacturer’s manual.
 Check lubricant pressure and adjust as
 Inspect lubricant scraper rings for
necessary to meet specified operating
pressure. leakage. Replace as necessary per
 Check cylinder jacket cooling water
manufacturer’s manual.
temperatures.  Inspect air intake filter. Clean or
 Check capacity control operation. Observe replace as necessary.
discharge pressure gauge for proper LOAD and  Drain lubricant strainer/filter
UNLOAD pressures. sediment.
 Drain control line strainer.
 Lubricate un-loader mechanism per
 Check operation of automatic condensate manufacturer’s manual.
drain trap(intercooler and after-cooler).
 Drain condensate from discharge piping as
 Check motor amperes (amps) at
applicable (drop-leg and receiver). compressor full capacity and
 Check intercooler pressure on multi-stage
pressure.
machines and refer to manufacturer’s manual
if pressure is not as specified. 161
Routine maintenance for water cooled double
acting reciprocating compressors
Every 3,000 Hours (or Semi-Annually) Every 6,000 Hours (or
 Perform valve inspection per
Annually)
 Inspect cylinder or cylinder liner,  Remove and clean
through valve port, for scoring. crankcase lubricant strainer.
 Change crankcase lubricant, if
required.  Check foundation bolts for
 Clean crankcase breather, if provided. tightness. Adjust as
 Change lubricant filter element. necessary.
 Remove and clean control air  Perform piston ring
filter/strainer element.
inspection. Replace as
 Check all safety devices for proper
operation. necessary per
 Perform piston ring inspection on manufacturer’s manual.
non-lubricated design. Replace as
necessary per manufacturer’s
manual.

Routine maintenance for lubricant injected
rotary compressor
Periodically/Daily (8 Hours Maximum) Monthly
 Monitor all gauges and indicators for  Service air filter as needed (daily or weekly if
normal operation. extremely dusty conditions exist).
 Wipe down entire unit to maintain
 Check lubricant level and top off as
appearance.
necessary.
 Check drive motor amps at compressor full
 Check for lubricant leaks. capacity and design pressure.
 Check for unusual noise or vibration.  Check operation of all controls.
 Drain water from air/lubricant  Check operation of lubricant
reservoir. scavenger/return system.
 Drain control line filter.  Clean, as necessary.
Periodically/Annually
 Go over unit and check all bolts for tightness.
Weekly
 Change air/lubricant separator.
 Check safety valve operation.  Change air filter.
6 Months Or Every 1,000 Hours  Lubricate motors per manufacturer’s
instructions.
 Take lubricant sample
 Check safety shutdown system. Contact
 Change lubricant filter authorized service person.

SCREW COMPRESSOR

SCREW ARRANGEMENT IN SCREW
COMPRESSOR

Routine maintenance for lubricant free rotary
screw compressor
 Routine maintenance is relatively minimal.
 The microprocessor control panel monitors the
status of the air and lubricant filters.
 When maintenance to either device is required, the
control panel may display the appropriate
maintenance message and flash the location on the
display as a visual remainder.
 Do not remove caps, plugs, and/or other
components when compressor is running or
pressurized.
 Stop compressor and relieve all internal pressure
before doing so. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 166
screw compressor
Daily
 Following a routine start, observe the various control panel
displays and local gauges to check that normal readings are
being displayed.
 Previous records are very helpful in determining the normalcy
of the measurements.
 These observations should be made during all expected
modes of operation (i.e., full-load, no-load, different line
pressures, and cooling water temperatures).
After Initial 50 Hours of Operation
 Upon completion of the first 50 hours of operation, essential
readings of operating conditions should be verified and any
necessary adjustments made.
screw compressor
Every 3,000 Hours of Operation
 The following items should be checked every 3,000 hours of operation, although
service conditions, such as relative cleanliness of process air or quality of cooling
water, may require shorter inspection intervals.
 Check/change lubricant charge and filter element.

 Check/change air filter element.
 Check/change sump-breather filter element.
 Check/clean control line filter element.
 Check/clean condensate drain valve.
 Check condition of shaft coupling element and tightness of fasteners.
 Measure and record vibration signatures on compressor, gearbox, and motor
(optional).
 Annual rebuilding of the inlet valve is normally recommended.
Note: Please refer to the motor manufacturer’s documentation for recommended

maintenance. Keep in mind that the specified type and quantity of lubricating grease
for motor bearings is crucial. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 168
screw compressor
Every 15,000 Hours of Operation
 In addition to those items covered in the 3,000-hour maintenance
interval, the following items must also be checked every 15,000 hours
of operation, depending upon conditions of service.
 Operate/test all safety devices.
 Check/clean heat exchangers.
 Check/clean blow down valve.
 Check operation of balancing switch/valve assembly.
 Check/clean water regulating valve.
 Check/clean check valve.
 Check/clean galvanized inter stage pipe work.
 Check condition of isolation mounts under compressor unit and
motor.
 Check/clean strainer and check valve included in lubricant pump
suction line, inside lubricant sump. 169
Routine maintenance for centrifugal
compressors
Daily Every 3 months
 Record operating air inlet, inter stage and  Check lubricant filter differential
discharge pressures and temperatures. pressure. Replace element as necessary.
 Record cooling water inlet and outlet  Check lubricant sump venting system.
pressures and temperatures. Replace filter elements as necessary.
 Record lubricant pressure and  Check operation of capacity control
temperatures. system.
 Record all vibration levels.  Check operation of surge control system.
 Check air-inlet filter differential pressure.  Check main-drive motor amps at full-
 Check proper operation of drain traps. load operation.
 Drain control air filter.  Check automatic drain traps and
 Check for leaks, air, water, and lubricant. strainers. Clean and/or replace as
Repair and clean as necessary. necessary.
 Check lubricant sump level and adjust as Every 6 Months
necessary.  Check air-inlet filter and replace element
 Check drive motor for smooth operation as necessary.
and record amps.  Take oil sample for analysis. Replace
lubricant as necessary.
compressors
Annually
 Inspect intercooler, after cooler, and lubricant cooler.
Clean and/or replace as necessary.
 Inspect main drive motor for loose mounting bolts,
frayed or worn electrical cables, and accumulated dirt.
Follow manufacturer’s recommendations, including
lubrication.
 Inspect main drive coupling for alignment and required
lubrication.
 Inspect gearbox for loose mounting bolts, vibration,
unusual noise or wear and axial clearances per
compressors
 Check impeller inlets and diffusers for signs of wear,
rubbing or cracking.
 Check control panel for complete and proper

operation.
 Check all control valves for proper operation.
 Check all safety devices for proper settings and

operation.
 Inspect check valve; replace worn parts.

Energy saving ideas for compressor air system
 Select correct size air compressor
 Operate compressor at required pressure
 Install VFD
 Minimise system losses – Proper line sizing
 Replace compressed air with blower air for

agitation as for agitation, quantity of air
and not pressure, is important
 Replace pneumatic tools with electric tools
 Separate high pressure and low pressure

compresses air users
Energy saving ideas for compressor air system
 Provide ball valves at the user point to avoid
compressed air wastage
 Air hoses should be fitted with transvector
nozzles as it sucks atmospheric air along with
air jet and has the potential to reduce air
consumption by 50%. Provide transvector
nozzles at end user location
 Cool inlet air to the compressor
 Provide sensors to sense unloading and
switch off
 Replace inefficient compressors
 Install high efficiency dryers
Energy saving concept - Replace Dessicant
Heater Dryer with Dessicant HOC (Heat of
Compression) dryer
Source - CII
Energy saving concept – Usage of VFD
 Usage of VFD leads to operation at lower average
pressure meaning lower air leakages. There will be
no unloading. There will be a typical payback period
of 1 year
Source - CII

Basic Terminology for Compressors-
 Flow rate: m3/hr , cfm ( 1cfm = 0.5886 m3/hr)
 Pressure ratio: ratio of absolute discharge press. /absolute inlet

pressure
 Absolute press = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
 Atmospheric pressure= pressure exerted by atmosphere
 At sea level atms press. = 1.033 kg/cm2 A = 1.013 barA = 14.696

pisA =
 760 mmHg= 1atms
 1 kg/cm2=14.22 psi , 1 Mpa (mega pascal) = 10.1 bar
 0 deg.cel. = 273 deg. K

Parameters for selection of compressor
 Application:
 Gas handled:
 Gas analysis:
 Flow rate:
 Suction Pressure :
 Suction Temperature:
 Mol wt. of Gas:
 Z (Compressibility) :
 Discharge Pressure:
 Drive System: Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 178

Reciprocating Compressors
Selection:
 Pressure till 3500 bar, Power till 7000 kW
 Construction:
 Vertical
 Horizontal
 Horizontal Balanced Opposed ( mostly used now)
 Suitable :for variable pressure ratio and constant capacity

at given speed
Reciprocating Compressors-
Major manufacturers ( India )
 Dresser Rand, Naroda.
 Plant & Instrument Air ( till 350 KW)
 Atlas Copco, Nasik ( formerly CP India)
 Ingersoll Rand, Naroda
 K.G. Khosla Compressors

Assessment of a compressor
Capacity of a Compressor
 Capacity: full rated volume of flow of compressed gas
 Actual flow rate: free air delivery (FAD)
 FAD reduced by ageing, poor maintenance, fouled heat

exchanger and altitude
 Energy loss: percentage deviation of FAD capacity

 The capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of
flow of gas compressed and delivered under conditions of
total temperature, total pressure, and composition
prevailing at the compressor inlet.
 It sometimes means actual flow rate, rather than rated

volume of flow. This is also called free air delivery (FAD) i.e.
air at atmospheric conditions at any specific location. This
term does not mean air delivered under identical or
standard conditions because the altitude, barometer, and
temperature may vary at different localities and at different
times.

Assessment of compressor
 Due to ageing of the compressors and inherent inefficiencies
in the internal components
 The free air delivered may be less than the design value,
despite good maintenance practices
 Sometimes, other factors such as poor maintenance, fouled

heat exchanger and effects of altitude also tend to reduce free
air delivery
 In order to meet the air demand, the inefficient compressor

may have to run for more time, thus consuming more power
than actually required

 The power wastage depends on the percentage
deviation of FAD capacity
 For example, a worn out compressor valve can

reduce the compressor capacity by as much as 20
percent. A periodic assessment of the FAD capacity
of each compressor has to be carried out to check its
actual capacity.
 If the deviations are more than 10 percent,

corrective measures should be taken to rectify the
same
Simple Capacity Assessment Method:
 Isolate compressor and receiver and close receiver outlet
 Empty the receiver and the pipeline from water
 Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch
 Note time taken to attain the normal operational pressure

P2 (in the receiver) from initial pressure P1

Assessment of the compressor
Calculate the capacity FAD:
 P2 = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm2a)
 P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm2a) after bleeding)
 P0 = Atmospheric pressure (kg/cm2a)
 V = Storage volume in M3 which includes receiver, after

cooler and delivery piping
 T = Time take to build up pressure to P2 in minutes


We will go through how to perform a simple capacity assessment in a
shop floor:
 Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver that are to be
taken for a test from the main compressed air system by tightly closing
the isolation valve or blanking it, thus closing the receiver outlet.
 Open the water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the
receiver and the pipeline. Make sure that the water trap line is tightly
closed once again to start the test.
 Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch.
 Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in the
receiver) from initial pressure P1.
 Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given. FAD is to be corrected

by a factor (273 + t1) / (273 + t2)
188
This is a simple method to quantify leaks in a compressed air system.
These are the steps:
 Shut off compressed air operated equipments (or conduct a test

when no equipment is using compressed air).
 Run the compressor to charge the system to set pressure of

operation
 Note the subsequent time taken for “Load” and “Unload” Cycles
of the compressors.
 Use the above expression to find out the quantity of leakage in the
system. If Q is the actual free air being supplied during trial then
the system leakage would be: System leakage = Q × T / (T + t)

Chart Showing the effect of altitude

Air Compressor Mechanics

Main components of reciprocating air compressor
 Cylinder
 Piston
 Piston Rod
 Crank Shaft
 Bushings: i)Steel bushing,
 ii) Aluminium bushing
 Rings and Packing's
 Valve and valve components
 i) Channel valves
 ii) Valve seats and stop plates
 iii) Metal valve guides
 iv) Seat plates (Flip plates
 Connecting Rods
Main parts of reciprocating compressor
Cylinder:
 Each cylinder separately cast
 Graded casting used to meet OEM (Original Equipment

Manufacturer) quality
 Machined & bored to equalizing permissible tolerances
 Perfectly vertically bored and honed
 Perfectly drilled with proper fixture ensure proper assembly

with related parts.
Piston
Available in steel, cast iron & alloy, fully machined aluminium
 Perfect dimension, finishing and material construction with

specification
 Diamond polished and packed properly
 Duly checked manually individual piston for porosity, dimensional

accuracy, Weight and piston ring groove size

Piston rod
 Properly heat treated with proper raw materials
 Ensure proper tensile strength
 Perfect machine with proper thread matching with

cross head and piston nut
 Ensure surface treatment with grinding with four micro

inch RMS (Reconfigurable Manufacturing system).

Crankshaft
 Ensure fully machined forging crankshaft
 Dynamic balanced crankshaft rotate freely
 Axial aligned to minimise vibration of compressor
 Perfect machining within permissible tolerances to
match with main bearing and connecting rod bushing
 Ensure require oil pressure with "Oil floating bushing"
 Our long life crankshaft assure minimum wear-tear,
labour, parts cost and high compressor efficiency.

Bushings : Steel Bushing
 Proper basic material with CNC machining, proper in-

house heat treated and maintained tolerances surface
grinding with smooth shining surface
 Ensure perfect size match with the dimension with

crankshaft and connecting rod for easy assembly with
long life

Bushings: Aluminum Bushing
Aluminum main bearing bush (one piece with axial cut)
and connecting rod bush (two halves) made from perfect
composition with aluminum ingots
 Proper heat treated and fully machine with perfection
equalizing OEM size
 Perfect axial cut to ensure oil pressure in main bearing
bush and connecting rod bush
 Diamond cut finish provide smooth and shining surface
 Drilled and machined as per OEM (Original Equipment
Manufacturer) quality .

Rings and Packings:
Piston Ring, Wearing Rings and Rider Rings
 Individual cast piston ring with complete machining

and proper cut
 Standard and lapped with requirement
 Metallic, carbon filled teflon, bronze filled teflon,

glass filled teflon & TFE Thermon plastics.

Valve Seats and Stop Plates
 Nodular iron castings are carefully in house heat
treated to desired properties for each applications.
Insure maximum strength wear and impact
resistance.
 Perfect machining and drilling
 Interchange as per part number
 Ensure and perfect assembly with related and
reference parts
 Perfect lift with proper machining to have confirm
pressure
 Machined, drilled, grinded and lapped 200
Metal valve Guides
 Highest quality machined steel guide. Precision
formed to exacting tolerances that assure proper
motion and movements of channel in the valves.
 Our highest quality guides can significantly improve
your compressor valve life.
 Highest quality sintered/machine alloy
 Exacting proper tolerances
 Suitable for lubricated and non lubricated
compressor valves
Seat Plates ( Flip Plates )
 316, 410 stainless steel and special order steel are
heat treated
 100% flat with ground and machined lapped
 Electro polished with micro grinding finishing
 De-magnetised to perfect movement and proper
sealing with channel.
 Ensure prompt pressure and long lasting life of
compressor valve

Connecting Rods
 Aluminium, bronze, SG iron & forging connecting
rods.
 Precisely machined at both end.
 Ensured perfect dimension at Bush & pin holes
machining.
 Great finishing & long lasting.
 Ensure permissible tolerances.
 Well match dimension & size in two piece Forging
Connecting Rod
Starting air compressor
 Read the operation and maintenance manual carefully
 Check the electric power supply
 Check for any looseness of bolts-nut joint
 Rotate manually the fly wheel for 2-3 rotation
 Check the the drive belts & their tension
 Check for cooling water pressure , open the valve, & check for
proper circulation of water,(in case of water cooled compressor)
 Check the safety valves by operating the lever
 Check the oil level in the crankcase
 Open the discharge valve of the compressor to the header
 Open the moisture drain of the compressor,
 Unload the compressor by pulling the un loader lever up to
unload position. (If the compressed air system is in pressure)
 Inspect the controls, instruments, and gauges for damage or
loose mountings. Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 204
Starting air compressor
 Inspect all tubing and piping joints for loose connections or damage
 Check all accessories for damage and loose mountings.
 Check to be certain that all the control switches are in the off position.
 Turn the power on to the compressor.
 Start the unit by putting on the switch, i.e. press start button
 Close the moisture drain valve ,
 Again check the safety valve by operating the lever, whether blowing or
not ,
 Check the pressure, whether reaching the set pressure,
 Check whether load-unload is functioning, / on-off switch is working as

per setting Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 205
Stopping procedure of compressor
 Open moisture drain valve
 Unload the compressor
 Run compressor 2-3 minutes for cooling down

 Press stop button to stop the compressor, after
cooling down.
 Close all respective cooling system valves after 15-20

minutes.
 Make entry in log book.

THANK YOU

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PROLIFIC SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES PVT LTD

ASIA’S LARGEST INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION TRAINING

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 1

Compressed air should only be used if safety enhancements and significant

Typical overall efficiency is 10 to 15 percent. Therefore, if compressed air is

Compressed air use should also be constantly monitored and re-evaluated

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 2

 A properly managed supply side will result in clean, dry,

 A properly managed demand side minimizes wasted air and

 Improving and maintaining peak compressed air system

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 6

 Aspirating is using compressed air to induce the flow of

 Atomizing is the use of compressed air to disperse or deliver a

An example is unloading tanks or tank cars.

 Typical applications are hold-downs or 55-gallon, drum-

 This is by far the most inefficient application in industry with

 If a compressed-air-generated vacuum is required, install a

Air flow to this unused equipment should be

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 13

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 14

Simple House Keeping Measures 5 – 10 %

Long term ( Capital intensive) 10 –15%

Total Potential for savings 15 –25%

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 15

 The compressor is the mechanical device that takes in

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 17

 Coalescing filters are the most common form of compressed

 Filtration only to the level required by each

 Elements should also be replaced as indicated by

 Centrifugal compressors are generally water-cooled

 Lubricant-injected rotary compressors use the injected

 In air-cooled compressors, a radiator-type lubricant cooler is

 In plants where good quality water is available, shell and tube

 Inter-stage Coolers that reduce the temperature of

 Most multi-stage compressors use intercoolers,

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 22

 The result of both of these situations is a difference

 Drying compressed air beyond the required

 An increase in inlet temperature or a decrease in

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 28

 The moisture in the compressed air reacts with the

 Keep in mind that this effluent is typically corrosive

 Most refrigerated dryers cool the compressed air to a

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 31

 Moisture drain traps that are used for removal of

 Automatic condensate traps are used to conserve

 Poorly maintained traps can waste a lot of

 Electrically operated solenoid valves The solenoid-operated

 Receivers are especially effective for systems with widely

 An air receiver after a reciprocating air compressor can

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 36

 A lubricator may be installed near a point-of-use to lubricate

 The lubricant should be that specified by the point-of-use

 More than 80 percent of the electrical energy going

 Heat can be recovered and used for producing hot

Prolific Systems & Technologies Ltd. 38

 The specific configuration of a distribution system depends on

 The length of the network should be kept to a minimum to

 A loop system is generally recommended, with all piping