4.

0 SHAFT, AXLE & BEARING

SHAFT
• A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section.
• Used to transmit power from a power source to a machine which
absorbs power main shafts and counter shafts.
• The various members such as pulleys and gears are mounted on it.
• Machine shafts are the integral part of the machine itself; e.x
crankshaft.
Shaft and pulley assembly
AXLE
• An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear.
• On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating
with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around
the axle.
• Bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where the
axle is supported.
• The latter type axle is referred to as a spindle.
Axle
LINE SHAFT
• A line shaft is a power driven rotating shaft for power transmission
• distribute power from a large central power source to machinery.
• power source could be a water wheel, turbine, windmill, animal
power or a steam engine.
• Power was distributed by belts, pulleys and gears known as millwork
• Now day electric motors are small enough to be connected directly to
each piece of machinery.
KEY
• Key is a machine element used to connect a rotating machine
element to a shaft.
• The key prevents relative rotation between the two parts.
• The shaft and rotating machine element must have a keyway and a
key seat, which is a slot and pocket in which the key fits.
• The whole system is called a keyed joint.
• Commonly keyed components include gears, pulleys, couplings, and
washers.
Key and keyway
TOLERENCE

• The tolerance of a size is defined as the difference between the upper

and lower limit dimensions of the part.

• Requirements of various production branches for accuracy of the

product.

• System ISO grades of accuracy.

Basic size
• The size whose limit dimensions are specified using the upper
and lower deviations.

• In case of a fit, the basic size of both connected elements must

be the same.
Type of fit
• Clearance fit
It is a fit that always enables a clearance between the hole and shaft in the
coupling. The lower limit size of the hole is greater or at least equal to the
upper limit size of the shaft.
• Transition fit
It is a fit where (depending on the actual sizes of the hole and shaft) both
clearance and interference may occur in the coupling. Tolerance zones of
the hole and shaft partly or completely interfere.
• Interference fit
It is a fit always ensuring some interference between the hole and shaft in
the coupling. The upper limit size of the hole is smaller or at least equal to
the lower limit size of the shaft.
 BEARING
• A component used between two parts that allows rotational or liner
movement, reducing friction.
• The concepts of bearing is thing roll better than they slide.
• Composed of a smooth inner and outer metal surface for metal balls
to roll against.
• The balls or rollers help support the load.
 Type of bearing

1) Plain Bearing
Simplest type of bearing
Comprising just a bearing surface and no rolling elements
 Least expensive type of bearing
They are also compact and light weight
They have a high load-carrying capacity
Example a shaft rotating in a hole
2) Rolling Element Bearing

• Place balls or rollers between two rings or races that allows

motion with little rolling resistance and sliding.

• These bearings include ball bearings and roller bearings.

• Able to handle a much heavier, radial load, such as conveyor

belts, because they don’t use balls.

• Rolling-element bearings have the advantage of a good trade

off between cost, size, weight, carrying capacity, durability,
accuracy, friction, and so on.
3) Jewel Bearing
Jewel bearings are plain bearings with a metal spindle that turns in a jewel-lined
pivot hole.

The hole is typically shaped like a torus and is slightly larger than the shaft diameter.

The jewel material is usually some form of synthetic corundum such as ruby.

Carry loads by rolling the axle slightly off-center

Usually used in precision instruments (used in mechanical watches or clocks) due to

their low and predictable friction that improves accuracy.
4) Fluid Bearing
• Support their load using a thin layer of gas or liquid

• Classified into two types: fluid-dynamic bearings and hydrostatic bearings.

 Fluid-dynamic bearings use rotation to form the liquid into a lubricating wedge
against the inner surface.

• In hydrostatic bearings, the fluids usually oil, water, or air rely on an external
pump.

• Used in high load, high speed or high precision applications that ordinary ball
bearings either couldn’t handle or would suffer from increased vibration and
noise.
5) Magnetic Bearing
• Magnetic bearings support moving parts without physical contact, instead
relying on magnetic fields to carry the loads.

• No contact, friction-free operation, elimination of many machine

components, and a clean, reliable and efficient machine.

• Magnetic bearings have very low and predictable friction the ability to run
without lubrication or in a vacuum.

• Increasingly used in industrial machines like turbines, motors, and

generators.
6) Flexure bearing
• Allows motion by bending a load element.

• A typical flexure bearing is just one part, joining two other parts.

• Another notable characteristic of this bearing is its resistance to

fatigue.

• They are simple and thus inexpensive, compact, lightweight, have

very low friction, and are easier to repair without specialized
equipment. Flexure bearings are not limited to low loads,
7) Needle Roller Bearing
 They are used to reduce the friction of a rotating surface.
• Have a large surface area that is in contact with the compared to ball
bearings.
• Radial needle bearings are cylindrical and use rollers parallel to the axis of
the shaft. Thrust needle bearings are flat and use a radial pattern of
needles.
• Have extremely high radial load carrying capacity and are suitable for
particularly compact designs.
• Needle bearings are heavily used in automobile components such as rocker
arm pivots, pumps, compressors, and transmissions.
BEARING SERVICE LIFE
• Service life is the life of a bearing under actual operating conditions
before it fails.

• The general information about bearing life calculation and basic load
ratings provided under selecting bearing size is also valid for super-
precision bearings

Basic Rating Life

• If the speed is constant, it is often preferable to calculate the life
expressed in operating hours using
𝐿10 = 𝐶
𝑃
a 𝐿
10ℎ
1𝑥106 𝐶
= 60𝑛 𝑃
a P  xFr  yFa
where
• L10 = rating life (at 90% reliability) [million revolutions] only Fr
exist.
• L10h = rating life (at 90% reliability) [operating hours] for Fr and Fa
exist
• C = dynamic load rating [kN]
• P = equivalent dynamic bearing load [kN]
• n = rotational speed [r.p.m]
• a = exponent of the life equation
a = 3 for ball bearings
a = 10/3 for roller bearings
 Bearing Catalog
P= 𝑥𝐹𝑟+yFa
X and Y factor for single row deep groove ball bearings

X Y X Y

0.025 1 0 0.56 2.0 0.22

0.040 1 0 0.56 1.8 0.24

0.070 1 0 0.56 1.6 0.27

0.130 1 0 0.56 1.4 0.31

0.250 1 0 0.56 1.2 0.37

0.500 1 0 0.56 1.0 0.44

Dimension of static and dynamic load capacities single-row deep groove ball bearing*
*In above table, the following notations are use:
d = inner diameter of the bearing
D = outer diameter of the bearing
B = axial width of the bearing
Exemple:

• A "Single Row Deep Grove Ball Bearing" with Designation Number

6013. These bearings are used in a hydraulic motor which rotates at
350 rpm. The axial and radial load that the hydraulic motor have to
withstand are 13,500 N and 9500 N, calculate the bearing life in
hours.
FRICTIONAL COMPONENT AND INFLUENCING
FACTOR
Frictional component Influencing factor
Rolling friction Magnitude of load
Sliding friction of rolling element Magnitude and direction of load

Sliding friction of cage Speed and lubrication condition, running-in condition

Fluid friction(flow resistance) Type and speed

Type, quantity and operating viscosity of lubricant

Seal friction Type and preload of seal
• Ceramic bearings are “anti-friction” bearings and the friction is
reduced drastically, and meanwhile the micro-weld problem is solved.

• Hydrostatic/hydrodynamic bearings, air bearings and magnetic

bearings have absolutely zero friction because of the “noncontact”
characteristic.
Bearing Code
Code Bearing type Code Bearing type Code Bearing type
Double row Single row
Four-point
angular angular
0 7 QJ contact ball
contact ball contact ball
bearing
bearing bearing
Tapered roller
Cylindrical bearing
Self-aligning
1 8 roller thrust T in accordance
ball bearing
bearing with
ISO 355:2007
Spherical roller
bearing, CARB toroidal
2 C
spherical roller roller bearing
thrust bearing
Tapered roller Cylindrical
3
bearing roller bearing.
Double row Two or more
4 deep groove letters are
ball bearing used to
identify the
Thrust ball number of the
5 N
bearing rows or the
configuration
of the flanges,
Single row
e.g. NJ, NU,
6 deep groove
NUP, NN,
ball bearing
NNU, NNCF
etc.
The main designation is a seven digit number with optional alphanumeric digits before
or after to define additional parameters.

Here the digits will be defined as: 7654321.

Any zeros to the left of the last defined digit are not printed; e.g. a designation of
0007208 is printed 7208

Digits one and two together are used to define the inner diameter (ID), or bore
diameter, of the bearing.

For diameters between 20 and 495 mm, inclusive, the designation is multiplied by five
to give the ID; e.g. designation 08 is a 40 mm ID.
For inner diameters less than 20 the following designations are used: 00 = 10 mm ID,
01 = 12 mm ID, 02 = 15 mm ID, and 03 = 17 mm ID.

The third digit defines the "diameter series", which defines the outer diameter (OD).

The diameter series, defined in ascending order, is: 0, 8, 9, 1, 7, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

The fourth digit defines the type of bearing.
 RELATION BETWEEN OPERATING TEMPERATURE
WITH BEARING FRICTION(FRICTION)
• One of the main function required of a bearing is that must have low
friction. Under normal operating condition rolling bearing have a
much smaller friction coefficient than the slide bearing, especially
starting friction.
 RELATION BETWEEN OPERATING TEMPERATURE
WITH BEARING FRICTION(TEMPERATURE RISE)
• Almost all friction loss in a bearing is transformed into heat within the
bearing itself and causes the temperature of the bearing is rise.

• Bearing operating temperature is determined by the equilibrium or

balance between the amount of heat generated by the bearing and
the amount of heat conducted away from bearing
• Temperature is rises sharply during initial operation then increase
slowly until it reached a stable condition.

• Possible causes of abnormal temperature include bearing

misalignment (due to moment load or incorrect installation),
insufficient internal clearance ,excessive preload or little lubricant
PRINCIPLE OF BEARING LUBRICANT
• Many bearings require periodic maintenance to prevent premature
failure

• Most bearing in high cycle operation need periodic lubricant and

cleaning to minimize the effect of wear

• Bearing life is often much better when the bearings is kept clean and
well-lubricated
 4 PRINCIPLE FOR LUBRICATION
I. PACKING
II. RING OILER
III. SPLASH LUBRICANT
IV. PRESSURE LUBRICANT
 PACKING

• Some bearings use a thick grease for lubricant which is push into a gaps between
the bearing surface(known as packing).
• The grease is held in pace by a plastic, leather or rubber gasket to keep the grease
escape
 RING OILER

• Bearing can be lubricated by a metal ring that rides loosely on the

central rotating shaft of the bearing.
• The ring hangs down into a chamber containing lubricating oil. As the
bearing rotates, viscous adhesion draws oil up the ring and onto the
shaft ,where the oil migrate into the bearings to lubricate it.
• Excess oil is flung off and collects in the pool again
 SPLASH LUBRICANT
• Some machines contain a pool of lubricant in the bottom, with gears
partially immerse in the liquid, or crank rods that can swing down into
the pool as the device operate.
• The spinning wheels fling oil into the air around them, while the
crank rods slap at the surface of the oil, splashing it randomly on the
interior surface of the engine
 PRESSURE LUBRICANT

• Pressure oiling is commonly used in large and complex internal

combustion engine in parts of engine where directly splash oil cannot
reach such as up into overheated valve assembly.
• High speed turbocharged also typically require a pressurized oil
system to cool the bearing sand keep them from burning up due to
the heat from the turbine.
 4.3 Mounting and
Dismounting of Bearing
4.3.1 - Mounting and dismounting of bearing
equipment and tools
MOUNTING : DISMOUNTING:

• Bearing Fitting Tools • External Bearing Puller

• Hook Spanners • Internal Bearing Puller
• Impact Spanners
• Bearing Heater
MOUNTING DISMOUNTING
4.3.2 Measuring Equipment For Bearing
Installation
1. Taper Gauges
2. Taper Feeler Gauges
3. Ring Gauges
4. Internal Clearance Gauge
4.3.3 Apply Concept to adjusting the
clearance during installation
Radial Clearance Axial Clearance Moment Clearance

The displacement generated by The displacement generated by The angular displacement

moving the outer ring in the moving the inner ring in the generated by tilting the inner
radial direction while securing axial direction while securing ring in the axial direction while
the inner ring. the outer ring. securing the outer ring.
Classify mounting methods like cold mounting,
temperature mounting and Hydraulic method
Cold Mounting :
• Mechanical method :
i. To drive small bearings with a cylindrical or tapered bore onto shaft or
housing
ii. Mounted with an appropriate bearing fitting tool
iii. Use a hydraulic press if the amount of bearings is larger
• If it’s not to tight, small bearing may be driven into position by applying
light hammer blows to a sleeve placed against the bearing ring face
• The blows should be evenly distributed around the ring, to avoid bearing
damage
Temperature Mounting :
• Mounting bearings using heat
• The temperature difference between the bearing and seating
depends on the magnitude of the interference fit and the bearing size
• Extreme heat can cause the material to change metallurgically and
produce alterations in diameter or hardness
• Wear clean protective gloves when mounting a hot bearing
• Lifting (hoisting) gear can facilitate mounting
• Push the bearing along the shaft as far as the abutment and hold the
bearing in position, pressing until a tight fit is obtained
Hydraulic Mounting :
• It iss the most widespread method of assembling large bearings. In
this method, there is minimal risk of damage bearing, shaft and other
components. Despite the size and weight bearing requires very little
effort which is required for installation, while providing a safe working
environment without significant risk injury to employees.
• Principle of the hydraulic assembly technique consists of injecting the
thin layer of oil between the bearings and shaft, which greatly
reduces friction and allows the bearing assembly with the minimum
necessary force.
• The method is not only useful for bearings, but also in other
mechanical components, which the classic method of assembly would
have been rather problematic.
4.4 Understand bearing damage

A . Fatigue , vibration and wear

SYMPTOMS
• Fatigue failure-usually referred to spalling. It is the fracture
of the running surfaces and subsequent removal of small.
• Discrete particles of material. Spalling can occur on the inner ring,
outer ring, or balls.
• This type of failure is progressive and once initiated will spread as
a result of further operation.
• It will always be accompanied by a marked increase in vibration,
indicating an abnormality.
CAUSES
• Overloading excessive preload.
• Tight inner ring fits.
• Bearing has remained in operation beyond its calculated
fatigue life.

REMEDIES
• Replace the bearing or consider redesigning to use a bearing
with a greater calculated fatigue life.
B. Corrosion Damage

SYMPTOMS
• Red/brown stains or deposits on rolling elements, raceways
or cages.
• Increased vibration followed by wear, increase in radial
clearance or loss of preload.
• This condition results from exposing bearings to corrosive
fluids or a corrosive atmosphere.
• In extreme cases, corrosion can initiate early fatigue failures.

CAUSES
• Exposing bearings to corrosive fluids or atmospheres,
formation of condensation caused by temperature changes.
REMEDIES
• Divert corrosive fluids away from bearing areas.
• Use integrally sealed bearings, and consider external
seals for particularly hostile environments.
• The use of stainless steel bearings is also helpful.
 LOCAL INDENTATION IN THE RACEWAY

Condition Cause Solution

•Hollows in raceway surface •Ingress of solid foreign objects 1.Keeping out foreign
produced by solid foreign •Trapping of flaked particles objects
objects trapped or impacts •Impacts due to careless handling 2.Check involved bearing
(False brinelling) and other bearings for
flaking if dents are
produced by metal
particles.
3.Filtration of oil
4.Improvement in handling
and mounting practices
•Inner ring (cut off piece) of self-aligning roller •Rollers of spherical roller bearing
bearing •Dents on rolling contact surfaces
•Dents on one side of the raceway •The cause is trapping of solid foreign objects.
•The cause is trapping of solid foreign objects.
•Inner ring of tapered roller bearing •Rollers of tapered roller bearings
•Dents on raceway surface •Dents all over rolling contact surfaces. (Temper
•The cause is trapping of foreign objects. color at two ends.)
•The cause is foreign objects carried by lubricating
oil.
 BEARING DAMAGES
Inadequate Lubrication
Any condition that allows metal-to-metal contact in a
bearing
can be regarded as “inadequate lubrication”
Sources / Causes:
– Lubricant starvation
– Insufficient lubricant to sustain a film
– Wrong kind of lubricant for the speed and load
– Wrong grade of lubricant
– Wrong type of lubricant system, such as the use of an
oil
level and splash system when operating conditions
require a circulating system
Shaft Misalignment
• Misalignment of the shaft in relationship to the housing causes an
• overload of the balls or rollers which will result in the failure described.
Housing Misalignment
• Housing misalignment may be caused either by the housing being
• cocked in relation to the plane of the shaft or the housing shoulder being
• ground out-of-square so that it forces the outer ring to cock in relation to
• the inner. It may also be caused by the settling of housing frames or
• foundations.
Shaft Bowing
Shaft bowing may be caused by the following:
■ As a result of improper handling
■ Overhung load exceeding shaft capacity.
■ Initial shaft bowing due to grinding inaccuracies.
■ Shaft shoulders ground out-of-square with the shaft centerline which
will, by cocking the inner ring, force a bowing of the shaft.
CURE FOR MISALIGNMENT
Housing
• The remedy is to dimensionally check and insure that both the housing
• bores are true to each other.
Shaft
• The shaft should be gauged to make sure that is concentric and
• straight. Heavy overhang loads should be lightened or moved closer to
• the bearing. If the shoulders are out-of-square; they should be reground
• and gauged so that they are perpendicular to both the bearing seat and
• the shaft centerline.