HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS,

EQUIPMENTS AND PRACTICE

Highway construction materials, properties,

testing methods – Construction practice
including modern methods, concrete road
constructions (problem not included) -
Highway drainage – Special considerations
for hilly roads.
 Function and Significance of
Subgrade Properties
• Basement soil of road bed.

• Important for structural and

pavement life.

• Should not deflect excessively

due to dynamic loading.

• May be in fill or embankment.

• Compacted or Natural
Subgrade
Cut and Fill (Embankment)
Sections
 Subgrade Soil
• Granular or Coarse grained
• Fine Grained
• Organic

• Granular atau kasar berbutir

• Berbutir halus
• Organik
 Unsuitable soil materials for
subgrade
• Clay soil which contains the value of Liquid Limit
more than 80% and/or Plasticity Index more than
55%,
• It is flammable materials (oily), and organically
clay soil,
• Contain lots of rotten roots, grass and other
vegetation,
• Soil which is soft and unstable because it is too
wet or dry which makes it difficult to compact
properly.
 Properties Associated with
Subgrade Soil

• Volume change with water.

• Load - Sustaining Power.
• Compression under static load.
• Workability during wet periods.
• Ease of drainage.
• Compactibility.
 Desirable Properties of Soil as
Subgrade Material
• Stability.
• Incompressibility.
• Minimum changes in volume and stability
under adverse condition of weather and
ground water.
• Permanency of strength.
• Good drainage.
• Ease of compaction.
Classification & Identification of soil
as subgrade material
• Index Properties
Size distribution (IS:2720 Part 4 –
1985)
Liquid limit
Plasticity Index
Shrinkage Limit
Field Moisture Equivalent – adsorbed
water
Compacted Dry Density
Centrifuge Moisture Equivalent
 Indian standard grain size
classification

Gravel particle size < 2.36mm

Moorum
Silts
Clay
 Grain Size Distribution

Significance of GSD:
• To know the relative proportions of different
grain sizes.

An important factor influencing the

geotechnical characteristics of a coarse grain
soil.
Not important in fine grain soils.
 Grain Size Distribution
Determination of GSD:
• In coarse grain soils …... By sieve analysis
In fine grain soils …... By hydrometer analysis
Di tanah gabah kasar ... ... Dengan analisis saringan
Di tanah butiran halus ... ... Dengan analisis hydromter
hydrometer

stack of sieves

sieve shaker

soil/water suspension

Sieve Analysis Hydrometer Analysis

• HRB (AASHO) classification
• Public Roads (PR -1928) A1-A7
• Group Index (GI)

A function of material passing through 200 mesh

sieve(0.74mm)

GI = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd

Min GI = 0;
Max GI = 20; when passing 200 mesh sieve, LL and PI
are 75,60 and 30 resp.

Higher GI = poorer soil as subgrade material

A-6(4), A-6(16)
 GROUND INDEX
Value of GI Soil Condition
0 Excellent

1 Good

2–4 Fair

5-9 Poor

10 - 20 Very Poor
 Indian Standard Soil
Classification
Based on modification on Unified Soil
Classification System.

Gravel : 80 – 4.75 mm
Sand : 4.75mm – 0.075mm (75 micron)
Silt : 75 – 2 micron
Clay : less than 2 micron

Particle size distribution -sieving and

sedimentation analysis IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985
Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit IS:2720 (Part 5) –
1985.
 Dry Density - MORT&H Specification
for Road & Bridges works(3rd Revision
1995)
MORTH specification recommends:

• 97 % dry density - heavy compaction by

modified proctor density. – IS:2720(Part 8)
– NH,SH,MDR and heavily trafficked roads.

• Atleast 97% by Standard Proctor density –

IS: 2720 (part 7)
 Subgrade Soil Strength
Assessed in terms of CBR of subgrade
soil for most critical moisture conditions.

• Soil type
• Moisture Content
• Dry Density
• Internal Structure of the soil
• Type and Mode of Stress Application.
 Tests ( pengujian)
FOR SUBGRADE SOIL/ EMBANKMENT
• Grain size analysis.
• Proctor compaction (Both light & heavy)
• California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
• Differential Free swell (DFS)
• Liquid Limit (L.L.) & Plastic Limit (P.L.)

FOR SUB BASE / ADMIXTURE

• Grain size Analysis.
• Proctor compaction (Both light & heavy)
• California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
• Differential Free swell (DFS)
• Liquid Limit (L.L.) & Plastic Limit (P.L.)
 Subgrade Performance
• Load bearing capacity:
Affected by degree of compaction, moisture content,
and soil type.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test, falling weight
deflectometer backcalculations and other methods.

• Moisture content:
Affects subgrade properties like load bearing capacity,
shrinkage and swelling.
Influenced by drainage, groundwater table elevation,
infiltration, or pavement porosity

• Shrinkage and/or swelling:

Soils with excessive fines content may be susceptible to
frost heave in northern climates.
 Moisture Content( isi
kelembaban)
• Water table
• Precipitation
• Soil Permeability
• Drainage conditions
• Extent to which pavement is water proof
• Meja air
• Pengendapan
• Permeabilitas Tanah
• Kondisi drainase
• Luas trotoar adalah bukti air
 Stability of Soil
• Stability of Soil depends on stress -deformation
characteristics of soil. (viscoelastic deformation)

• Repeated Application of Stress:

Frequency of Loading cycle
Magnitude of stress
Number of Repetitions .

• Static Stress :
Period of stress application
Intensity of Stress
 Evaluation of Strength of
Subgrade Soil
• Shear Test
• direct shear test, triaxial compression test,
and unconfined compression test.
• Bearing Test
• Penetration Test
 California Bearing Ratio Test

• a penetration test wherein a standard

piston, having an area of 3 in (or 50 mm
diameter), is used to penetrate the soil at a
standard rate of 1.25 mm/minute.
• The pressure up to a penetration of 12.5
mm and it's ratio to the bearing value of a
standard crushed rock is termed as the
CBR.
CBR Testing Machine
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
Test
50 mm • Strength measure for
diameter unbound materials
piston
• Piston advanced at
1.3 mm / min. rate
• Measure load at 2.5
180 Saturated
Specimen
mm penetration (P2.5)
mm
• CBR = 100(P2.5/Pstd)

150 mm
standard loads adopted for different penetrations
for the standard material with a C.B.R. value of
100%
Penetration of Plunger (mm) Standard Load (kg)

2.5 1370

5.0 2055

7.5 2630

10.0 3180

12.5 3600
 Aggregate Physical Properties

• Aggregates can be classified by their mineral, chemical

and physical properties.

• An aggregate's physical properties are a direct result of

its mineral and chemical properties.
• Maximum size: The smallest sieve through which 100
percent of the aggregate sample particles pass.

• Nominal maximum size: The largest sieve that retains

some of the aggregate particles but generally not more
than 10 percent by weight.
 TEST ON AGGREGATES
1. Aggregate Impact Test

2. Flakiness and Elongation Test

3. Angularity Index Test

4. Los Angeles Abrasion Test

5. Water Absorption Test

6. Specific Gravity Test

7. Soundness Test
Aggregate Gradation
Crude oil processing
• Bitumen: distillation of petroleum
crude.

• Tar: Destructive distillation of coal or

wood.

• Paving grade: air fields, roads.

• Industrial grades: water proofing of

structures, industrial floors, etc.
 Construction Practice
Construction of embankments for subgrade

 Materials – soil, moorum,gravel

 Unsuitable materials
• Materials from swamps, marshes
• Clay with LL >70
• PI > 45
• Free swelling Index > 50
• Size of Coarse materials

 Embankments <= 75mm

 Subgrade <= 50mm
 Density of Materials of Embankment and
Subgrade

Type of Work Maximum Dry Density with

heavy Compaction – IS: 2720
(Part 8)

Embankment upto 3 m height, Not less than 15.2 kN/cu. m

not subjected to extensive
flooding.

Embankments exceeding 3m Not less than 16.0 kN/cu. m

height or embankments of any
height subject to long periods
of inundation.
Subgrade and earthen Not less than 17.5 kN/cu. m
shoulders/ verges/backfill.
 Compaction of Embankment and Subgrade
Type of Work Relative Compaction as percentage
of max. laboratory dry density -
IS:2720 (Part 8)

Subgrade and earthen shoulders Not less than 97

Embankment Not less than 95

Expansive Clays (of acceptable FSI) Not allowed

(a) Subgrade and 500 mm portion
just below the subgrade.
(b) Remaining portion of Not less than 90
Embankment
 Construction Operation
• Setting out the alignment.

• Dewatering

• Compacting ground to support embankment /

subgrade

• Spreading of materials and moisture content

 Sub base, base and shoulders
• Materials
Natural sand, moorum, gravel, crushed
stone or combination , lime treated if high
% of clay is found.

• Construction Operation
Preparation of sub grade
Spreading Sub base material
Moisture content 1.0% - 2%
 Construction of WBM
• Constructed of twelve inches of stone over all.

• An eight-inch foundation is provided of hard

quarry stone, laid on edge, with the longest
dimension placed at a right angle to the side line
of the drive.

• After the stones are placed they should be

cleared of the irregular edges using hammer

• The pieces of stone so broken off should be

used to fill in chinks.
 WBM
• Coarse Aggregates – hard and soft
aggregates

• Screening

• Binding materials
 Coarse aggregates in WBM
• Hard variety of crushed aggregates or broken stones.
• Properties:
Durable, hard, free from flaky and elongated particles.

Property Requirements for pavement layer (max %)

Sub base Base course Surfacing course

Los Angeles 60 50 40
Abrasion value

AI value 50 40 30

Flakiness Index - 15 15
 Soft aggregates in WBM

• Overburnt brick metal

• Naturally occurring soft agg – kankar,
laterite
• Crushed slag from blast furnace
Size & Grading requirement of Coarse Aggregates for WBM
Grading No Size range Sieve size (mm) % by wght
(mm) passing sieve
1 90 - 40 100, 100
80, 65 – 85
63, 25 – 60
40, 0 – 15
20 0–5
2 63 - 40 80, 100
63, 90 – 100
50, 35 – 70
40, 0 – 15
20 0–5
3 50 - 20 63, 100
50, 95 – 100
40, 35 – 70
20, 0 – 15
10, 0–5
 Screening
• For filling the voids in compacted layer
• IRC suggests use of non plastic material –
kankar, moorum or gravel.
• Should satisfy:
– LL , 20%
– PI , 6%
– Portion of fines passing 0.075mm size sieve ,
10%
 Binding Material
• To prevent ravelling and rubbing between
aggregates
• Grained material
• PI 4 to 9 % ( surfacing Course)
• PI , 6% ( with sub base and base course
with bituminous surfacing course)
• No binding material for moorum and
Gravel ( low PI)