Ferrous Alloys

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TYPES OF ALLOYS

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 ALLOY STEELS
1. When certain special properties are desired some elements such as Nickel,
Chromium, Manganese, Vanadium, Tungsten etc. are added to the carbon
steel. The steels thus obtained are called as Alloy Steels.

2. An alloy steel may be defined as one whose characteristic properties are due to
some element other than carbon.

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 PURPOSE OF ALLOYING
1. To increase Hardenability.

2. To improve strength at ordinary temperatures.

3. To increase wear resistance.

4. To impart a fine grain size to steel.

5. To improve corrosion and fatigue resistance.

6. To improve hardness, toughness and tensile strength.

7. To improve Machinability.

8. To improve magnetic properties.

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 ADDITION OF NICKEL (Ni)
1. Refines the grain and increases toughness.

2. Increases the tensile strength without sacrificing ductility.

3. Improves forming property of stainless steel.

4. Lowers the co-efficient of thermal expansion.

5. Promotes Graphitization by making carbide unstable.

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 ADDITION OF MANGANESE (Mn)
1. It is used as a deoxidizing agent in all steels.

2. It forms manganese sulphide inclusions which in the ingot are spherical.

3. In the absence of manganese, sulphur forms interdendritic films of iron

sulphide causing brittleness at forging temperature (hot shortness).

4. It effectively increases hardenability and up to 1.5% is added for this purpose.

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 ADDITION OF MANGANESE (Mn)
5. In larger amounts it is used to stabilize austenite.

6. Manganese aids the grain structure, and contributes to hardenability, strength

& wear resistance.

7. Manganese is used in stainless steels to improve hot ductility.

8. All commercial steels contain 0.3-0.8% manganese, to reduce oxides and to

counteract the harmful influence of iron sulfide. Any manganese in excess
partially dissolves in the iron and partly forms Mn3C which occurs with the
Fe3C.

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 ADDITION OF SILICON (Si)
1. Silicon is a Ferrite Former.

2. Addition of Silicon encourages Brittleness.

3. Silicon is one of the principal deoxidizers used in steelmaking

4. It has a beneficial effect upon tensile strength and improves hardenability of an

alloy.

5. It has a toughening effect when used in combination with certain other

elements.

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 ADDITION OF SILICON (Si)
6. Silicon (Si) is usually added to improve electrical conductivity of an alloy.

7. Its average concentration is between 1.5% and 2.5 %.

8. Silicon dissolves in the ferrite, of which it is a fairly effective hardener.

9. It contributes oxidation resistance in heat-resisting steels.

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 ADDITION OF CHROMIUM (Cr)
1. Chromium is commonly added to steel to increase corrosion resistance and
oxidation resistance.

2. Chromium is added to increase hardenability, or to improve high-temperature

strength.

3. As a hardening element, Chromium is frequently used with a toughening

element such as nickel to produce superior mechanical properties.

4. Chromium increase the toughness of steel and wear resistance.

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 ADDITION OF CHROMIUM (Cr)
5. It is this element that gives the stainless steels their basic corrosion resistance.

6. The corrosion resistance increases with increasing chromium content.

7. It also increases the resistance to oxidation at high temperatures.

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 ADDITION OF MOLYBDENUM (Mo)
1. A carbide former, prevents brittleness & maintains the steel's strength at high
temperatures.

2. Adds greatly to the penetration of hardness, increases hardenability and

increases toughness of an alloy.

3. It causes steel to resist softening at high temperatures, which defeats the

purpose of forging.

4. Molybdenum substantially increases the resistance to both general and

localized corrosion.

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 ADDITION OF VANADIUM (V)
1. Vanadium acts as a scavenger for oxides, forms vanadium oxides V2O5, and
has a beneficial effect on the mechanical properties of heat treated steels,
especially in the presence of other elements.

2. Vanadium increases the yield strength and the tensile strength of carbon steel.

3. Vanadium increases the hardness of martensitic steels due to its effect on the
type of carbide present.

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 ADDITION OF VANADIUM (V)
4. It also lessens softening on tempering and confers secondary hardness on high
speed and other steels.

5. It retards grain growth within steel even after long exposures at high
temperatures, and helps to control grain structures while heat treating.

6. Vanadium contributes to wear resistance and hardenability.

7. Chromium-vanadium (0.15%) steels are used for locomotive forging,

automobile axles, coil springs.

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 ADDITION OF TITANIUM (Ti)
1. The principal use of titanium is to stabilize carbon by forming titanium
carbide.

2. It is used to retard grain growth and thus improve toughness.

3. Titanium causes sulfide inclusions to be globular rather than elongated thus

improving toughness and ductility in transverse bending.

4. In precipitation hardening steels, titanium is used to form the intermetallic

compounds that are used to increase the strength.

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 ADDITION OF TUNGSTEN (W)
1. Retention of Hardness and toughness at high temperature.

2. Also known as wolfram, is used as an alloying element in tool steels, as it

tends to impart a tight, small, and dense grain pattern and keen cutting edges
when used in relatively small amounts.

3. It Increases wear resistance

4. Tungsten refines the grain size and produces less tendency to decarburization
during working.

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 ADDITION OF TUNGSTEN (W)
5. Tungsten is also used in corrosion- and heat-resisting steels.

6. It increase the strength at normal and elevated temperatures.

7. In addition, tungsten finds considerable application in general tool steels, die

and precipitation hardening steels.

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STAINLESS STEEL

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 STAINLESS STEELS
When 11.5 % or more Chromium is added to Iron, a fine film of
Chromium oxide forms spontaneously on the surfaces that are exposed to air.
The film acts as a barrier to retard further oxidation, rust or corrosion. As this
steel cannot be stained easily, it is called as Stainless Steel.

They are classified into two groups.

1. Plain Chromium and High Chromium low Nickel Steels.

2. Chromium Nickel Steels.

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 PLAIN CHROMIUM AND HIGH
CHROMIUM LOW NICKEL STEELS
The composition of these steels are,
Plain Chromium Steels
Carbon = 0.8 %
Chromium = 12 to 20 %
High Chromium Low Nickel Steels
Carbon = 0.1 to 0.2 %
Chromium = 12 to 20 %
Nickel =2%
These Steels can be Heat treated and are used for dies and valves.

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 CHROMIUM NICKEL STEELS
1. These steels are non-magnetic and cannot be hardened.

2. They have high resistance to corrosion and may be cold or hot worked,
pressure welded, brazed or soldered.

3. The percentage of carbon is kept up to 0.5 %.

4. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.

5. The various combinations are 18 : 8, 12 : 2 and 18 : 9.

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 CHROME VANADIUM STEELS
1. These steels usually contains 0.8 to 1.1 % Chromium, 0.25 - 0.33 % Carbon
and less than 0.25 % Vanadium.
2. Vanadium produces cleaner steel because of the deoxidizing action.
3. Vanadium is distributed both between ferrite and carbide.
4. Chromium intensifies the effect of vanadium more than that of Nickel.
5. Chrome Vanadium steels are used where great strength, toughness and
resistance to fatigue are required.
6. Used in Axles, Shafts of aeroplanes and automobiles.

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 NICKEL STEEL
1. The percentage of Nickel varies from 2 to 40 %.
2. Steel containing 20 % Ni has very high tensile strength.
3. If Ni is present up to 27 %, it makes steel non-magnetic and non-
corrodible.
4. Steels containing 3.5 % Ni and 0.15 to 0.45 % carbon has good ductility,
high elastic ratio and resistance to fatigue. It is used in long span bridges.
5. Invar (36 % Ni) and super-Invar (31 % Ni) are used in measuring
instruments because of least co-efficient of expansion.
6. Nickel tends to retard the grain growth in steel, resulting in wide range of
heating.

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 VANADIUM STEEL
1. Addition of small proportion of Vanadium to low carbon steel raises its
elastic limit and improves fatigue resistance.
2. It resists high alternation stresses and severe shocks when added up to 0.25
%.
3. Vanadium makes the steel strong and more ductile.
4. Improves response to heat treatment.
5. Provides control of structure.
6. Widely used for making Tools.
7. Used for Shafts, spring, gears and drop forged parts.

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 MANGANESE STEEL
1. Manganese from 1 to 1.5 % makes the steel strong and tough but from 1.5 to
5 % renders the steel hard and brittle.
2. More Manganese reduces strength and ductility.
3. Manganese Steels shows high percentage of elongation.
4. Heat treated cast manganese steel in bar form is so ductile that it can be
double bend when cold without fracture.
5. Easily forged, difficult to machine and thus it is usually ground.
6. Good material for “Burglar Proof”.
7. Used for Rails, cover plates for lifting magnets (non magnetic property),
Helmets and Shields.

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 TUNGSTEN STEEL
1. Tungsten when added to steel improves magnetic properties and
Hardenability.
2. Steel containing 1.5 % tungsten is too hard to be machined by ordinary
methods.
3. High percentage of tungsten makes the steel to retain its hardness even at
high temperatures.
4. 8 % of tungsten attributes so much hardness in steel that it can scratch glass
even.
5. Used for making permanent magnets and high speed cutting tools.

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 MAGNET STEELS
An important permanent magnet alloy (Alnico) contains approximately

60 % - Iron

20 % - Nickel

8% - Cobalt

12 % - Aluminium.

This alloy can be forged and is used as a casting hardened by precipitation

heat treatments.

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TOOL STEELS

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 TOOL STEEL
High quality special steels are used for cutting or forming process.
TOOL STEELS (CLASSIFICATION)
QUENCHING MEDIA ALLOY CONTENT APPLICATION
USED
1. Water Hardening Steel 1. Carbon Tool Steel 1. Hot work steels

2. Oil Hardening Steel 2. Low alloy Tool Steel 2. Shock-resisting steels

3. Air Hardening Steel 3. Medium alloy Tool 3. High speed steels

Steel

4. Cold work steels 29

 PROPERTIES OF TOOL STEEL
1. Toughness- Ability to resist breaking.
2. Red-Hardness - Resistance to softening effect of heat.
3. Wear resistance – Resistance to abrasion.
4. Non-deforming properties – Distortion obtained in Hardening.
5. Machinability - Ability of the material to cut freely.
6. Safety in Hardening – Depends on Hardenability of individual steels.
7. Resistance to Decarburization – Decarburization result in a soft rather than
a hard surface after Hardening.

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Non – Ferrous Alloys
COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

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 COPPER
1. Copper is available in the metallic form.

2. It is present in Copper glance (Cu2S), Malachite (CuCO3.CuO2H2) and

Azurite (2 CuCO3.CuO2H2).

3. Depending upon the character of the ore and location condition, Copper is
extracted from its ore in various methods.

4. When Copper is in the Blister stage, refining is done.

5. The Copper is 99% pure and is further refined in the furnace by oxidation
process which removes Sulphur and other impurities.(ETP or OFHC)
 COPPER
6. Excess of Oxygen is removed by poling. Green wooden poles are thrust
under the molten metal, which is covered with charcoal, coke which is
rich in Carbon.

7. Phosphorous, Silicon, Lithium, Magnesium, Calcium are added to the

molten metal to remove oxygen (Deoxidation) to produce deoxidized
copper needed for Intricate casting.
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES

1. Copper is reddish-brown metal.

2. Copper is best conductor of heat and electricity, its electrical conductivity is

highly sensitive to the presence of impurities.

3. If copper is heated to red hot and cooled slowly, it becomes brittle; if cooled
rapidly it becomes soft, malleable and ductile.

4. Pure Copper does not cast well. When molten it absorbs carbon monoxide,
hydrogen and Sulphur dioxide which separate out on cooling and cause blow
holes..
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES

5. Highly resistant to corrosion by liquids.

6. Tensile Strength varies from 300 to 470 MN/m2.

7. It forms alloys like Bronze and Gun metal.

 USES OF COPPER
1. In making Electric cables and wires.

2. Used in Electroplating and for soldering iron bits.

3. Used as a damp proof material.

4. Used in places where corrosion resistance with fair strength and flexibility is
essential.
 COPPER ALLOYS
 Copper and copper alloys are designated according
to the Copper Development Association (CDA) as
wrought alloys and cast alloys.

 Copper alloys can be divided into two principal

classes namely BRASS (alloys of Copper and Zinc)
and BRONZE (alloys of Copper and Tin).
BRASSES
 CLASSIFICATION OF BRASSES

Composition
S.No Name Typical uses
Cu Zn
1 Muntz 59 41 Welding rod, Condenser tubes
2 Spinning Brass 70 30 Tubes, Sheets, wires
3 Brazing Brass 75 25 Springs, suitable for brazing
Radiator cores, condenser
4 Red Brass 85 15
tubes
5 High Brass 66 34 Stamping, spinning, drawing,
Drawing,forming,flexiblehose,
6 Low Brass 80 20
ornamental metalwork.
 MODIFIED BRASSES – MANGANESE
BRASS
Composition is

Copper - 60%

Zinc - 38 to 42%

Tin - 0.5 to 1.5%

Iron - 0.5 to 1.5%

Manganese - 0 to 0.5% and

Little Aluminum
 MANGANESE BRASS
1. Manganese is added in the form of ferromanganese; which accounts for
presence of iron.

2. This is extremely tough

3. High corrosion resistance, even to sea water.

4. Manganese acts as deoxidizer, hardens and strengthens the alloy.

5. Used for pump rods, hydraulic rams, valves and cylinders.

 IRON BRASS
Composition is,

Copper - 60%

Zinc - 37%

Iron - 3% (with some amounts of Nickel or Manganese)

1. It is hard, strong and tough.

2. It resists corrosion.

3. It has very high tensile strength.

4. It is used for mild steel if corrosion is to be resisted.

 TIN BRASS
1. Addition of Tin increases the hardness and tensile strength.

2. The addition of Tin should not exceed 2%, because with higher amounts the
ductility begins to decrease.

3. Composition is, Copper - 60%, Zinc - 39%, Tin - 1%.

4. It is also called as naval brass, since it is used in naval construction.

5. It has high strength and hardness.

6. It has good working qualities

7. It has excellent corrosion resistant property.

 LEAD BRASS
1. Addition of Lead increases the softness of the brass. 85-5-5-5

2. More amount of lead added will cause reduction in ductility and strength

and increases the machinability of brass.

ALUMINUM BRASS
1. The amount of aluminum added to brass is 2%. 76-22-2

2. It raises the tensile strength but decreases the ductility.

3. It resists corrosion better than ordinary brass.

Bronzes
 BRONZES
1. The tensile strength of bronze increases up to addition of 20% of tin, beyond
this the tensile strength decreases rapidly.

2. Bronze is more ductile when it contains about 5% of Tin, above this the
ductility reduces and becomes brittle and hard with about 20%.

3. Bronze containing 4% to 8%tin is called as COINAGE BRONZE (High

tensile strength).

4. Bronzes which contain 8 to 11% tin are called as GUN METAL (High
strength).

5. Bronze containing 15% to 25% tin is called as BELL METAL (Very hard and
Brittle).
Microstructures of Bronzes
 MODIFIED BRONZE
Composition is

Copper - 88%

Tin - 8 to 10%

Zinc - 4 to 2%.

Presence of Zinc increases the fluidity of the melted metal and increases
strength and ductility.
 PHOSPHOR BRONZE
1. By the addition of phosphorous the qualities of bronze like tensile strength,
elasticity and resistance to fatigue is greatly increased.

2. Phosphorous is added in the form of phosphorous copper containing 8%

phosphorous. Phosphor bronze is essentially a deoxidized bronze.

3. Phosphor bronze of proper composition can be forged, drawn, cold rolled and
cast.

4. It resist the corrosion of sea water then normal bronze.

5. Used for propeller blades, valve parts, springs and mine cables.
 SILICON BRONZE
1. These are copper alloys containing 4% silicon and up to 1% manganese with
small amounts of tin, zinc, iron and aluminum.

2. They have strength of soft steel and are corrosion resistant.

3. Used in screws, belts and pumps.

 ALUMINIUM BRONZE
This is primarily a copper- aluminium alloy. Its composition is,

Copper - 88%, Aluminium - 8%

Iron -3%, Manganese -0.5%

1. It has high strength, reasonable resistance to corrosion.

2. Used for die casting, hot stampings, bearing metal in locomotive.

3. The main disadvantage of aluminium bronze is, it usually develops surface

films of high electrical resistance when used for current carrying purposes.

4. Structure similar to steel can be obtained on heat treating.

 BERYLLIUM COPPER
1. This is also called as Beryllium bronzes. It contains 2% to 3% of beryllium.

2. It has high yield point and high fatigue limit.

3. It has excellent cold and hot resistance and can be heat treated.

4. Used for springs, heavy duty electrical switches, cams and bearings.

5. Being non-sparking, it is used for making chisels and hammers under

conditions where spark might cause and explosion.
 CUPRONICKEL
1. Cupronickel or Coppernickel is an alloy of copper, nickel and strengthening
impurities, such as iron and manganese.

2. Cupronickel does not corrode in seawater. Because of this, it is used for marine
hardware, and sometimes for the propellers, crankshafts and hulls of premium
tugboats, fishing boats.

3. A common use is in many silver-coloured modern circulation coins.

4. A typical mix is 75% copper, 25% nickel, and a trace amount of manganese.
 CUPRONICKEL
5. In the past true silver coins were debased with cupronickel. Despite high
copper content the color of cupro- nickel is silver.

6. It is used in thermocouples, and a 55% copper/45% nickel alloy is used to

make very accurate resistors.

7. Monel metal is a nickel-copper alloy, containing minimum 63% nickel.

ALUMINIUM
&
Al-Cu ALLOYS

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 ALUMINIUM
1. Aluminium is a bluish white metal.

2. Pure Aluminium has good formability and corrosion resistance. Hence it is

used for cooking utensils, food and chemical handling and storage
equipments.

3. It has a thin oxide layer which protects the metal from corrosion.

4. Aluminium is manufactured from the ore Bauxite. Bauxite is purified and

then dissolved in fused Cryolite (double fluoride of aluminium and
sodium). The aluminium is then separated by electrolysis at about 910°C.

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 PROPERTIES
1. It is light in weight.

2. It has good tensile strength.

3. It has high electrical conductivity and heat conductivity.

4. It has good corrosion resistance.

5. It has good malleability and formability.

6. It is unaffected by atmospheric influences, but corroded by sea water.

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 USES OF ALUMINIUM
1. It is used for making utensils.

2. Used in manufacture of piston, electric cable, rivets and collapsible tubes for
pastes.

3. In a finely divided flake form, it is used as pigment in paint.

4. It is used in deoxidizing molten iron and steel.

5. Aluminium foil is used as silver paper for packing chocolates etc.

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 ALUMINIUM – COPPER ALLOYS
DURALUMIN
The composition of Duralumin is,

Aluminium - 84%

Copper - 3.5% to 4.5%

Manganese - 0.4% to 0.7%

Magnesium - 0.4% to 0.7%

Iron or Silicon - < 0.7%

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ALUMINIUM – COPPER ALLOYS
DURALUMIN

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 ALUMINIUM – COPPER ALLOYS
DURALUMIN

1. It has high machinability and high tensile strength.

2. It can be forged and stamped.
3. It is used for manufacturing bars, rivets and tubes.
4. Due to its light weight and high strength, it is used in

automobile and aircraft components.

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 ALUMINIUM CASTING ALLOY
It contains,

Aluminium - 90%

Copper - 8%

Iron - 1%

Silicon - 1%

It has good hardness and used in intricate castings.

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 ALUMINIUM SILICON ALLOY

It contains

Aluminium - 95% to 85%

Silicon - 5 % to 15%

It has excellent casting qualities and good corrosion resistance.

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 MAGNALIUM
It contains

Aluminium - 94%

Magnesium - 2% to 6%

Copper - 1.75%

Due to its light weight it is used for automobile and aircraft components.

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 Y ALLOY
1. It is called as Copper – Aluminium- Nickel alloy.

2. The addition of copper to pure aluminium increases its strength and

machinability.

3. Nickel has the advantage of retaining strength at high temperatures.

4. It is used as casting alloy

5. If it is heat treated, it develops good mechanical strength.

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 Y ALLOY
6. It contains

1. Aluminium - 90%

2. Copper - 3.5% to 4.5 %

3. Nickel - 1.8% to 2.3%

4. Manganese - 1.2% to 1.7%

5. Magnesium - 0.6%

6. Iron - 0.6%

7. Silicon - small percentage

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BEARING ALLOYS

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 BEARING (OR) ANTIFRICTION
ALLOYS
A bearing alloy should have the following characteristics.
1. Good wearing quality.
2. Low co-efficient of friction.
3. High thermal conductivity.
4. High melting point.
5. Good casting qualities.
6. Ability to withstand bearing pressure and impact.
7. Ability to work satisfactory at the rubbing speed.
8. Low shrinkage after casting.
9. Non-corrosive property.
 HARD BEARING BRONZE

1. Copper - 85%

2. Tin - 15 %

3. Used for Locomotive slide valves and for turntables.

 BABBIT METAL

1. It is a white metal bearing alloy.

2. Used for heavy duty bearings.

3. Tin - 89.2%, Copper - 3.8%, Antimony - 7%.

4. It posses excellent antifriction properties.

5. On overheat, the Babbit lining will melt and prevent the bearing from seizing
up.
 BERYLLIUM COPPER BEARING
1. Copper - 97.5%

2. Beryllium - 2.5%

3. It posses self lubricating property which makes it suitable for bearing

material.

GRAPHITE BEARING METALS

It contains graphite distributed uniformly throughout their composition and

posses self lubricating property.

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