Structures and Functions of

Animal Tissues and Cell

modification
Levels of Biological organizations

Cell Tissue Organ

Organ System
 Tissue
- A group of similar cell that perform specific
functions
Four Primary Types:
1. Epithelial Tissue – covers body surfaces
and lines body cavities
2. Connective Tissue – binds and support
body parts
3. Muscle Tissue – moves the body and its
parts
4. Nervous Tissue – receives stimuli and
conducts nerve impulses
 Histology
the study of tissues
 Epithelial Tissue
• Also called epithelium
• Composed of a tightly packed cells that form a
continuous layer
• is a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or
lines a body cavity.
• Two forms occur in the human body:
Covering and lining epithelium – forms the outer
layer of the skin; lines open cavities of the digestive
and respiratory systems; covers the walls of organs
of the closed ventral body cavity.
Glandular epithelium – surrounds glands within the
body
Epithelium has two names.
(1)indicates the number of cell
layers,
(2)describes the shape of its cell
Based on the number of cell layers,
epithelia can either be simple or
stratified.
• Simple epithelia– consist of a single
cell layer (found where absorption,
secretion, and filtration occur).
• Stratified epithelia– are composed of
two or more cell layers stacked on
top of each other (typically found in
high abrasion areas where protection
is needed).
All epithelial cells have six sides but they
vary in height. For this reason, there are
three ways to describe the shape and
height of epithelial cells.
• Squamous cells– are flat and scale-
like.
• Cuboidal cells– are box-like (same
height and width).
• Columnar cells– are tall (column
shaped).
Simple Squamous Epithelium

• Has flattened cells

• Occurs in the air sacs of lungs,
walls of capillaries and lining of
blood vessels
• they resemble the look of a fried
egg
• Function in protection, diffusion,
filtration
Two simple squamous epithelia in the
body have special names reflecting
their location.

Mesothelium – is a membrane
composed of simple squamous
epithelium that forms the lining of
several body cavities: the pleura
(thoracic cavity), peritoneum
(abdominal cavity including the
mesentery), mediastinum and
pericardium (heart sac).
Endothelium – is a type of
epithelium that lines the interior
surface of blood vessels and
lymphatic vessels, forming an
interface between circulating
blood or lymph in the lumen and
the rest of the vessel wall. It is a thin
layer of simple squamous cells
called endothelial cells.
 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
• Has cubed-shaped cells
• consists of a single layer of cells with
the same height and width
• Occurs in lining of kidney tubules
and on surfaces of ovaries
• Functions in protection, secretion
• Absorption
 Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Has rectangle-shaped cells
• is a single layer of tall, closely packed cells
that line the digestive tract from the
stomach to the rectum and lining of uterus
• They contain dense microvilli on their apical
surface .
• Additionally, some simple columnar
epithelia may display cilia on their free
surface also.
 Pseudostratified Ciliated
Columnar Epithelium
• Appears to be layered and vary in
height.
• All of their cells rest on the basement
membrane and only the tallest reach
the apical surface.
(Basement membrane – a thin, delicate
membrane of protein fibers and
glycosaminoglycans separating an
epithelium from underlying tissue)
When viewing pseudostratified
epithelium it may look like there
are several layers of cells, but this is
not the case. (because the cells
have different heights, it gives the
illusion of multiple cell layers).
Most pseudostratified epithelia
contain cilia on their apical
surface and line the respiratory
tract.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• The most widespread stratified epithelia
• It’s composed of several layers and is perfect for
its protective role.
• Its apical surface cells are squamous and cells of
the deeper layer are either cuboidal or columnar.
• Stratified squamous forms the external part of the
skin and extends into every body opening that’s
continuous with the skin. The outer layer of the skin
(epidermis) is keratinized (contains keratin, a
protective protein).
• Other stratified squamous in the body is
nonkeratinized.
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
• is somewhat rare in the human
body.
• It’s mainly found in the ducts of
glands (sweat glands, mammary
glands)
• typically has two layers of
cuboidal cells
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
• is also rare in the human body
• Small amounts are found in the
pharynx, male urethra, and lining of
some glandular ducts.
• Stratified columnar epithelium
occurs in transition areas (junctions)
between other epithelial types.
 Junction between Epithelial
Cells
• Tight junctions: Impermeable junctions that
prevent molecules from passing through the
intercellular space.
• Desmosomes (Adhesion junctions):
Anchoring junctions that bind adjacent cells
together and help form an internal tension-
reducing network of fibers.
• Gap junctions: Communicating junctions
that allow ions and small molecules to pass
for intercellular communication.
 Connective Tissue

• Binds organs together,

provides support and
protection, fills spaces,
produces blood cells and
stores fat
Connective tissue cells are
widely separated by a matrix.
Matrix – consisting of a non
cellular material that varies in
consistency from solid to
semifluid to fluid
 3 Types of Matrix
• Collagen Fibers – containcollagen,
aproteins that gives them flexibility and
strength
• Reticular Fibers – are very thin collagen
fibers that are highly branched and
form delicate supporting networks
• Elastic Fibers – contain elastin, a protein
that is not strong as collagen but is more
elastic
 Loose Fibrous and Dense
Fibrous Tissues
• Both have cells
called fibroblasts
that are located
some distance
from one another
and are
separated by a
jellylike matrix
containing white
collagen and
yellow elastic
fibers.
 Loose Fibrous Connective
tissue
• Supports epithelium and also many
internal organs
• Its presence in lungs, arteries and
urinary bladder allows these organs to
expand.
• It forms a protective covering
enclosing many internal organs such
as muscles, blood vessels and nerve.
 Dense fibrous connective
tissue
• Contains many collagen fibers that are
packed together
• This type of tissue has more specific functions
than those loose connective tissue.
• For example, dense fibrous tissue is found in
tendons, which connect muscles to bones,
and ligaments which connect bones to
other bones at joints.
 Adipose connective tissue
• In the ADIPOSE TISSUE, the fribroblasts
enlarge and store fat.
• The body uses his stored fat for energy,
insulation and organ protection.
• Adipose tissue is found beneath the
skin, around the kidneys, and on the
surface of the heart.
Reticular connective tissue
• Forms the supporting meshwork of
lymphatic tissue present in the lymph
nodes, the spleen, the thymus and the
bone marrow.
• All types of blood cells are produced in
red bone marrow, bit certain type
lymphocyte (T lymphocyte) completes
its development in he thymus. The
lymph nodes store lymphocyte.
 Cartilage
• In cartilage, the cells lie in small
chambers called lacunae (sing.,
lacuna), separated by a matrix
that is solid yet flexible.
• Unfortunately, because this tissue
lacks direct blood supply, it heals
very slowly
 3 TYPES OF CARTILAGE
Hyaline cartilage
• Most common type of cartilage, contains only
very fine collagen fibers
• The matrix has a white translucent
appearance.
• Found in nose, at the ends of the long bones
and the ribs, and it forms rings in the walls of
respiratory passages.
• The fetal skeleton is also made of this type of
cartilage. Later the cartilaginous fetal
skeleton is replaced by bone.
Elastic cartilage
• Has more elastic fibers than
hyaline cartilage.
• For this reason, it is more
flexible and is found, for
example in the framework of
the outer ear.
Fibrocartilage
• Has matrix containing strong
collagen fibers. Fibrocartilage is
found in structures that withstand
tension and pressure, such as
pad between the vertibrae in the
backbone and the wedges in
the knee joint.
 BONE
• Most rigid connective tissue.
• It consists of extremely hard matrix of
inorganic salts, notably calcium salts
deposited around protein fibers,
specially collagen fibers.
• The inorganic salts give bone rigidity,
and the protein fibers provide
elasticity and strength, much as steel
rods do in reinforced concrete
 Compact bone
• Makes up the shaft of a long bone
• It consists cylindrical structural units called
osteons (Haversian systems).
• The central canal of osteon is surrounded by
rings of hard matrix. Bone cells are located
in spaces called lacunae between the rings
of matrix.
• Blood vessels in the central canal carry
nutrients that allow bone to renew itself.
• Canal extentions of bone
cells within canaliculi
(minute canals) connect
the cells to each other and
to the central canal.
 Spongy bone
• Contains numerous bony bars and
plates, separated by irregular spaces.
• Although lighter than compact bone,
spongy bone still designed for strength
• Just as braces are used for support in
buildings, the solid portion of spongy
bone follow lines of stress.
 BLOOD
- is unlike other types of connective tissue in
that the matrix (i.e., plasma) is not made
by the cells.
• The internal environment of the blood
consists of blood and tissue.
• Blood transports nutrients and oxygen to
tissue fluid and removes carbon dioxide
and other wastes.
• It helps distribute heat and play a role in
fluid, ion and Ph balance.
• Upper, liquid layer:
Plasma – represents about 55 % of
the volume of whole blood and
contains a variety of organic and
inorganic substances dissolved or
suspended in water.
• Lower layer: 45% of the volume
of the whole blood
Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)
White blood cell (Luekocytes)
Platelets (thrombocytes)
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

• Are small, biconcave, disk-sahped cell

without nuclei
• are made inside your bones, in the bone
marrow. They typically live for about 120
days, and then they die.
also remove carbon dioxide from your body,
transporting it to the lungs for you to exhale.
Hemoglobin – is the protein inside red blood
cells that carries oxygen (makes the cell red,
and in turn, makes the blood red).
RBC
Iron is an essential element for
blood production. About 70 % of
your body's iron is found in the red
blood cells of your blood called
hemoglobin and in muscle cells
called myoglobin. Hemoglobin is
essential for transferring oxygen in
your blood from the lungs to the
tissues.
 White Blood Cells
(Leukocytes)
• Usually lager and have a nucleus and
without staining usually would appear
tansluscent
• Fight infection in two ways:
(1) Some WBC are phagocytic and engulf
infectious pathogens
(2) Other WBC produce antibodies molecules
that combine with foreign substances to
inactivate them
 Platelets
• Are not complete cells; rather they are
fragments of giant cells present only in
bone marrow
• When a blood vessel is damaged,
platelets form a plug that seals the
vessel, and injured tissues release
molecules that help the clotting
process
Muscular Tissue
 SKELETAL MUSCLE
• Skeletal muscles attach to and move
bones by contracting and relaxing in
response to voluntary messages from
the nervous system.
• Skeletal muscle tissue is composed of
long cells called muscle fibers that
have a striated appearance. Muscle
fibers are organized into bundles
supplied by blood vessels and
innervated by motor neurons.
SMOOTH (VISCERAL) MUSCLE
• Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow
organs throughout the body.
• Smooth muscle contractions are involuntary
movements triggered by impulses that travel
through the autonomic nervous system to
the smooth muscle tissue.
• The arrangement of cells within smooth
muscle tissue allows for contraction and
relaxation with great elasticity.
• The smooth muscle in the walls of organs
like the urinary bladder and the uterus
allow those organs to expand and relax as
needed.
• The smooth muscle of the alimentary canal
(the digestive tract) facilitates the
peristaltic waves that move swallowed
food and nutrients.
• In the eye smooth muscle changes the
shape of the lens to bring objects into
focus. Artery walls include smooth muscle
that relaxes and contracts to move blood
through the body
 CARDIAC MUSCLE
• The heart wall is composed of three
layers.
• Myocardium - middle layer, is
responsible for the heart’s pumping
action. Cardiac muscle, found only in
the myocardium, contracts in
response to signals from the cardiac
conduction system to make the heart
beat.
• Cardiac muscle is made from cells
called cardiocytes.
• Like skeletal muscle cells cardiocytes
have a striated appearance, but
their overall structure is shorter and
thicker.
• Cardiocytes are branched, allowing
them to connect with several other
cardiocytes, forming a network that
facilitates coordinated contraction.
 Skeletal Muscle Smooth Muscle Cardiac muscle
• Has striated • Has spindle- • Has branching
cells with shaped cells, striated cells,
nuclei each with each with a
• Occurs in single nucleus single nucleus
muscles • Cells have no • Occurs in the
attached to striation wall of the
skeleton • Functions in heart
• Functions in movement of • Functions in
the in substances in the pumping
voluntary lumens body of blood
movement of • Is involuntary • Is involuntary
the body
• Is voluntary
 Nervous Tissue

• Tissue that contains nerve

cells (neurons), which
conduct impulses, and
neuroglia, which support,
protect, and provide
nutrients to neurons
 Neuron
• Present in the brain and the spinal
chord
• Specialized cell that has three
parts:
• Dendrites
• Cell body
• Axon
Dendrite
• An extinction that conducts signals toward
the cell body
Cell Body
• contains the major concentration of
cytoplasm and the nucleus of the nueron
Axon – an extension that conveys an
impulse away from the cell body.
Myelin (sheath) -is a fatty white
substance that surrounds the axon of some
nerve cells that work like an insulator to
speed up the conduction of impulses
received by the human body
 Nerves
- an enclosed, cable-like bundle of
axons (nerve fibers, the long and
slender projections of neurons) in the
peripheral nervous system.
- provide a common pathway for the
electrochemical nerve impulses that
are transmitted along each of the
axons to peripheral organs.
 Neuroglia
In addition to neurons, nervous
tissue contains neuroglia.
Neuroglia – cells that outnumber
the neurons nine to one and take
up more than half of the volume of
the brain
Function:
Support and nourish neurons