CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Objectives
Appreciate the importance of surveying
State the objectives of surveying
Explain the basic principles of surveying
Classify surveys according to instruments, methods,
purpose and place
Explain the construction and working of different types
of scales
Explain the purpose, parts and working of telescopes
and spirit levels
List the types of errors encountered in survey work
 AGENDA
Objectives of Surveying
Basic Principles
Basic Terminology
Classification of Surveys
General
Plans and Maps
Scales
Telescope
Spirit Level
Errors
 OBJECTIVES OF SURVEY
Collect and record data of points on the
surface of the earth
Compute areas and volumes
Prepare plans and maps
Lay out engineering works using survey data
Check the accuracy of laid out works

BACK
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
1. Working from whole to part
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
2. Locating points by independent
measurements
Points can be located by rectangular
coordinates
Polar coordinates
By measuring two angles
Angular and linear measurements
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
• Locating points by independent
measurements

BACK
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
Earth
Earthas
asa aspheroid
spheroid
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
Latitude
Latitudeand
andLongitude
Longitude
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
Great circle and spherical Triangle
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
Level line, horizontal line and plumb line
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
Earth’s Magnetism

BACK
 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
Plane Survey - When the survey area is small,
the curvature of the earth is ignored.
Difference between arc and chord is small.
Geodetic Survey – High precision survey where
survey area is large and curvature of earth is
taken into account. Many other correction in
measured quantities are done for higher
precision.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
Instrument based Survey
• Chain survey
• Compass survey
• Plane Table Survey
• Theodolite Survey
• Levelling
• Tacheometry
• EDM survey
• Total Station Survey
• Remote sensing, Satellite-based Survey
 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
Method-based Surveys
• Triangulation
• Trilateration
• Traversing
• Levelling
• Tacheometry
• Trigonometric Levelling
 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
Purpose-based surveys
• Reconnaissance
• Preliminary Survey
• Engineering Survey
• Geographical Survey
• Mine Surveys
• Route Surveys
 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
Purpose-based surveys
* Location Surveys
• Geological Surveys
• Defence Surveys
• Archeological Surveys
 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
Place-based Surveys
• Land Survey
• Hydrographic Survey
• Aerial Survey
• Underground Survey

BACK
 CONTROLS
Horizontal Control – Establishing points with
great precision using highly precise
equipment; Such points are used for further
detailed surveys.
Vertical Control – Establishing points of known
elevation, called Bench Marks, using precise
instruments and methods. The Datum surface
is the mean sea level.
 SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
Survey instruments are delicate and sensitive.
Care in using instruments
• Follow manufacturer’s instructions
• Keep instrument in the box or cover properly
• Protect from sun and rain
• Take care of optical parts
• Proper use of instruments in field.
• Proper, frequent adjustment.
 QUALITIES OF GOOD SURVEYOR
• Sound knowledge of theory
• Knowledge of instruments, limits of precision,
possible errors and maintenance
• Field practice, proficiency, accuracy and
judgment
• Leadership qualities
• Good professional conduct

BACK
 PLANS AND MAPS
Plans and maps are graphical representations.
Plans and maps are projections of a spherical
surface on a plane.
Distortions occur during such representations
In the case of small areas, such distortions are
small and accepted.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Rectangular coordinates
In plane by (x, y) coordinates
In space by (x, y, z) coordinate system.
Polar coordinates
By (r, θ) the radial distance from origin and
angle θ.
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Spherical coordinates
by (θ, φ) where θ is the angle from a reference
plane or meridian and φ is the angle from the
equatorial plane of the sphere.
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
For locating point on the surface of the earth, the
reference meridian is the meridian passing through
Greenwich, England.
Points to the east of this meridian have east longitude
and points towards the west have west longitude.
Points above equatorial plane have north latitude and
point below have south latitude
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Latitude and Longitude
PROJECTION SYSTEMS
 PROJECTION SYSTEMS
i) Azimuthal Projection system
The projection is on to a plane which is
tangential to the surface. The plane can be
tangential and horizontal, vertical or
inclined.
ii) The conical projection uses a conical surface,
the axis of which may be horizontal, vertical
or inclined.
 PROJECTION SYSTEMS
Cylindrical Projections

Cylindrical projection uses a cylindrical surface. The axis of the

cylinder may be vertical, horizontal or inclined.

All the projection systems introduce some distortion in the

projection obtained.

BACK
 SCALES
Scale representation is
i) as 1 cm = 10 m.
ii) As representative fraction 1/1000
iii) Or as graphical representation
 PLAIN SCALE STANDARDS
Designation Scale values RF values
A Full size, 50 cm to 1 m 1/1, 1/2

B 40 cm = 1m, 20 cm = 1/2.5, 1/5

1m
C 10 cm = 1m, 5 cm = 1 1/10, 1/20
m
D 2 cm = 1 m, 1 cm = 1 1/50, 1/100
m
E 5 mm = 1m, 2 mm = 1 1/200, 1/500
m
F 1 mm = 1m, 0.5 mm = 1/1000, 1/2000
1m
 DIAGONAL SCALE
Construction of diagonal scale
 DIAGONAL SCALE
Construction of Diagonal scale
Is based on the principle of similar triangles
Can measure three dimensions like units, tenths
and hundredths.
 DIAGONAL SCALE STANDARDS
Designation Length RF

A 150 cm 1/1

B 100 cm 1/100000, 1/25000

1/25000,

C 50 cm 1/100000, 1/50000
1/25000,

D 150 cm 1/100000, 1/8000, 1/4000

CHORD SCALE
 CHORD SCALE
Setting an Angle
To set an angle of 40°:
Measure the 60° length from the scale of chords.
Draw line AB and mark this length to get AB.
With A as centre and AB as radius draw an arc.
Measure the 40° chord length. With B as centre draw
an arc to meet the previous arc at C.
Join AC. Angle BAC is 40 degrees.
 CHORD SCALE
To measure a given angle
Let BAC be the given angle.
Mark AD as chord length for 60 degrees.
With A as centre, draw an arc of radius AD to cut
AC at point E.
Join DE and measure its length.
Place this length along the chord scale and read
the angle.
 VERNIER SCALE
Vernier Scale
 VERNIER SCALE
Vernier is sliding scale
Slides along the main scale
Vernier scale helps to read smaller than the
main scale division
Many survey instruments like theodolite have
circular vernier scale.
Vernier works on the ability of the eye to read
coincidence of lines on two scales.
VERNIER SCALE
 VERNIER SCALE
Direct Reading Vernier
 VERNIER SCALE
Main scale and vernier scale
(n – 1) main scale divisions are taken and
divided into n divisions in the vernier.
Least count of vernier = Value of one main scale
division - value of one vernier scale division.
Least count = value of main scale division/
number of divisions on vernier scale
 VERNIER SCALE
Theodolite has circular vernier
 MICROMETER
Micrometer microscope is used for finer
readings

BACK
TELESCOPE
 TELESCOPE
Optical diagram of Surveyor’s telescope
 TELESCOPE
Main Parts
1. Objective lens – is a concave lens but
generally a compound lens.
2. Eye piece – is also a composite lens
3. Diaphragm – is a circular glass with cross
hairs etched.
4. Focusing knob – is for focusing and to bring
the image on the diaphragm.
 OBJECTIVE LENS
Objective lens is a convex
lens for converging the
rays coming from
outside.
Both objective and eye
pieces are not single
lenses but a set of
lenses placed together
to enhance the quality
of image.
 EXTERNAL FOCUSING TELESCOPE
AN OLDER VERSION NOT MUCH USED.
 EXTERNAL FOCUSING TELESCOPE

1. The focusing is by the outer tube sliding over

the inner tube.
2. The telescope is longer in length.
3. More wear and tear due to sliding tubes.
4. The outer tube holds the eye piece and the
inner tube holds the objective lens.
 INTERNAL FOCUSING TELESCOPE
Is commonly used in survey instruments
 INTERNAL FOCUSING TELESCOPE
1. Internal focusing telescope uses a double
concave lens for focusing
2. The telescope is compact and shorter in
length.
3. Slight reduction in brightness due to
additional lens.
 EYE PIECE
• Eye piece is a Ramsden
compound lens and of
many types –
Ramsden’s eyepiece is
commonly used.
EYE PIECE
 EYE PIECE
Ramsden’s, Huygen’s, Erecting Eye pieces
 DIAPHRAGM
Diaphragm is a glass piece with cross hairs
etched on it.
 CROSS HAIRS
Cross hairs may be of many patterns
 QUALITIES OF TELESCOPE
1. No spherical aberration
2. Achromatism
3. Definition
4. Brightness
5. Size of field
6. Magnification
QUALITIES OF TELESCOPE

BACK
SPIRIT LEVEL
 SPIRIT LEVEL
Spirit level is used in many instruments to keep
the instrument level.
 SPIRIT LEVEL
Spirit level consists of a metal
tube with a glass window.
The glass tube has markings
from the centre on both
sides.
Adjusting screws are provided
on one end.
The tube has a curved surface
of large radius
 SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity of the level or vial is the angular value of one
division.
Sensitivity = l/R or s/Dn radians
= 206265s/Dn seconds
Where l is the length of one division
R is the radius of the bubble tube arc
s is the difference in reading on staff
D is the distance between level and staff
n is the number of divisions
 SPIRIT LEVEL
1. When the bubble is in centre, the bubble axis gives
a horizontal line
2. The longitudinal surface of tube is an arc of a circle.
The bubble axis is tangent to the curve at its
centre.
3. Sensitivity of the bubble is the ability to show small
angular variations.
4. The tube is marked on either side of the bubble in
2 mm divisions.

BACK
 ERRORS
Errors can be due to
i) Instrumental faults – Instrument not in
adjustment, wear and tear, faulty manufacture etc
ii) Manipulative errors – human error of reading,
recording, wrong manipulation of controls
iii) Natural causes – refraction, windy conditions,
temperature, magnetic substances etc
 ELIMINATION OF ERRORS
Instrumental errors
Frequently check the instrument by permanent
adjustment method
Keep the instrument maintained and calibrated
by a trained technician
Handle the instrument carefully
Protect it from sun, rain, dust and moisture
 ELIMINATION OF ERRORS
Manipulative errors
Operator should study the operations manual of the
instrument carefully before handling it
The technology has improved so that much less
reliance on human expertise in handling is required.
Sighting, reading and recording errors should be
avoided; modern instruments eliminate most of
these errors.
 ELIMINATION OF ERRORS
Errors due to natural causes
Important measurements are taken at the same
time on different days
Corrections to be applied for the quantities
Use appropriate methods and precautions to
avoid such errors
Manufacturer’s instruction for minimizing errors
to be followed
END