BEE1133 : Circuit Analysis I

Chapter 4: First Order Circuits

 First Order Circuits : Syllabus

4.1 Introduction to energy storage elements

4.2 The source-free RC circuit
4.3 The source-free RL circuit
4.4 Unit step function
4.5 Step response of an RC circuit
4.6 Step response of an RL circuit
First Order Circuits:Lesson Outcomes

• Understand the characteristics of capacitor

and inductor
• Differentiate the behaviour of first-order
circuit with dc circuit
• Demonstrate the behaviour of natural
responses of source-free RC and RL circuits
Energy Storage Elements :
• Capacitor and Inductor
Energy Storage Elements: Capacitor
• A capacitor is a passive element that stores energy
in its electric field.
• It consists of two conducting plates separated by an
insulator.
• Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of
a capacitor to the voltage difference between the
q
two plates C 
• Measured in farads (F) v
• A capacitor is an open circuit to dc.
• The voltage on a capacitor cannot
change abruptly.
Energy Storage Elements: Capacitor
• The capacitance value depends on the physical
dimensions of the capacitor:
A
C
d
• Current voltage relationship of the capacitor
t
dv 1
ic  C vc   idt  v(t0 )
dt C t0
• Energy stored in the capacitor
1 2
wc  Cv
2
Series and Parallel Capacitors
• Series connection of capacitors

• Parallel connection of capacitors

Energy Storage Elements: Inductor
• An inductor is a passive element that stores energy
in its magnetic field.
• It consists of a coil of conducting wire.
• Inductance is the property whereby an inductor
exhibits opposition to the change of current flowing
through it.
• Measured in henrys (H)
• An inductor acts like a short
circuit to dc.
• The current through an inductor
cannot change instantaneously.
Energy Storage Elements: Inductor
• The inductance value depends on the physical
dimensions and construction of the inductor:
N 2 A
L where  is the permeability of the core

• Current voltage relationship of the inductor
t
di 1
vL  L iL   v(t )dt  i (t0 )
dt L t0
• Energy stored in the inductor
1 2
wL  Li
2
Series and Parallel Inductors
• Series connection of inductors

• Parallel connection of inductors

Energy Storage Elements: Summary
Series and Parallel Capacitor/Inductors
Exercise 1
Find equivalent capacitance, Ceq for circuit below.
Series and Parallel Capacitor/Inductors
Exercise 2
Find equivalent inductance, Leq for circuit below.
Source free RC circuits :
• Natural response
Source free RC circuits
• Source free RC circuit occurs when its DC source is
suddenly disconnected.
• The energy already stored in the capacitor is
released to the resistors.

A source free RC circuit

Source free RC circuits
• A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-
order differential equation.
By KCL
dv v
iC  iR  0 C  0
dt R

Capacitor law Ohm law

• Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage laws to circuit above

results in algebraic equations.
• Apply the laws to RC circuits to produce differential
equations.
Source free RC circuits
• Voltage response of the RC circuit is solved below:
dv v dv v
C   0 or  0
dt R dt RC
• This is a 1st order differential equation (only 1st
derivative of v is involved:
dv 1
 dt
v RC
• Integrating both sides
t v t
ln v    ln A becomes ln  
RC A RC
• Taking power of e (V0 is initial voltage at t =0)
v(t )  Ae  t RC or v(t )  V0 e  t RC
Source free RC circuits
• The natural response of a circuit refers to the
behavior (i.e voltages & currents) of the circuit
itself, with no external sources of excitation.
Time constant RC
Decays more slowly

Decays faster

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for

the response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its
initial value.
• v decays faster for small t and slower for large t.
 Source free RC circuits
• The key to working with a source-free RC circuit is
finding:

v (t )  V0 e  t /  where RC

1. The initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the capacitor.

2. The time constant  = RC.
Source free RC circuits
Example 1
Refer to RC circuit below. Let vc(0) = 30 V. For t  0,
determine vc , vx , io , and wc
Source free RC circuits
Solution for Example 1
• Since the voltage across capacitor cannot change
instantly, the voltage across capacitor at t = 0 - is
the same at t = 0:
vc (0)  V0  30V
• Solve for the time constant
  ReqC
• Find Req to solve for 
Req  12 // 6  8  12
1
  12   4s
3
Source free RC circuits
Solution for Example 1 (cont…)
• Now solve for vc and wc
t  t 4 0.25t
vc (t )  vc (0)e  30e  30e
1 2 1 1
wc (0)  Cvc (0)    30  150 J
2

2 2 3
• Now solve for vx and io
t  4 0.25t  0.25t
vx (t )  v x (0)e  30  e  10e
48
v8 t  20 0.25t  0.25t
io (t )   e  e  2.5e
8 8
Source free RC circuits
Example 2
If the switch opens at t = 0, find v(t) and wc(0) for t  0
Source free RC circuits
Solution for Example 2
• Voltage across capacitor at t = 0- is the same at t = 0.
To calculate v(0), capacitor is open (due to dc
source) 12 // 4 3
vc (0)   24   24  8V
6  (12 // 4) 63

  RforCthe time constant

• Solve
eq

Req R12
• Find 4  3
// solve
eq to for 
1
  3   0.5s
6
Source free RC circuits
Solution for Example 2 (cont…)
• Now solve for vc and wc
t  t 0.5 2 t
vc (t )  vc (0)e  8e  8e
1 2 1 1 2
wc (0)  Cvc (0)    8  5.33J
2 2 6
Source free RC circuits
Exercise 3
If the switch opens at t = 0, find :
i) , vc(t), wc(0)and iR(t) for t  0
ii) Value of vc at t = 3 sec.
t=0

10  5 iR

+
20 V
+ 1 7
_ 2 12
F VC
_
Source free RC circuits
Exercise 4
If the switch opens at t = 0, find :
i) , vc(t), wc(0)and iR(t) for t  0
ii) Value of vc at t = 4 sec.
t=0
iR

5 5

+
+ 10  10  1
VC
15 V _ F
5
_
Source free RL circuits :
• Natural Response
Source free RL circuits
• A first-order RL circuit consists of a inductor L (or
its equivalent) and a resistor (or its equivalent)

By KVL
di
vL  vR  0 L  iR  0
dt

Inductors law Ohms law

• Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage laws to circuit above.

• Apply the laws to RL circuits to produce
differential equations.
Source free RL circuits
• Current response of the RL circuit is solved below:
di di R
L  iR  0 or  i0
dt dt L
• This is a 1st order differential equation (only 1st
derivative of i is involved: i (t ) t
di R di R
i
  dt
L

I0
i
   dt
0
L
• After Integrating both sides
Rt i (t ) Rt
ln i(t)  ln I 0    0 or ln 
L I0 L
• Taking power of e (V0 is initial voltage at t =0)
i (t )  I 0 e  Rt L
Source free RL circuits

A general form representing a RL

t / 
i (t )  I 0 e
L
where 
R

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for

the response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its
initial value.
• i(t) decays faster for small t and slower for large t.
Source free RL circuits
Comparison between a RL and RC circuit

A RL source-free circuit A RC source-free circuit

L
i (t )  I 0 e t / 
where  v(t )  V0 e  t / where   RC
R
 Source free RL circuits
• The key to working with a source-free RL circuit is
finding:

 t / L
i (t )  I 0 e where  
R

1. The initial voltage i(0) = I0 through the inductor.

2. The time constant  = L/R.
Source free RL circuits
Example 3
If the switch opens at t = 0, find iL(t) and wL(0) for t  0

2 3H

25 V
+ 6 6
_
 Source free RL circuits
Solution for Example 3
• Current through inductor at t = 0- is the same at t = 0.
To calculate i(0), inductor is open (due to dc source)
6 // 6 1 3 1
iL (0)   25    25   2.5 A
2  (6 // 6) 6 23 6
• Solve for the time constant
  L Req
• Find Req to solve for  2

Req  6  6  12
3H

6 6 6 6
  3 / 12  0.25s 25 V
Source free RL circuits
Solution for Example 3 (cont…)
• Now solve for iL and wL
t  t 0.25 4 t
iL (t )  iL (0)e  2.5e  2.5e
1 2 1
wL (0)  Lic (0)   3  2.5  9.375 J
2

2 2
Source free RL circuits
Exercise 5
If the switch opens at t = 0, find :
i) , iL(t), wL(0)and iR(t) for t  0
ii) Value of iL at t = 5 sec.

t=0
iL(t) 5H

15 A 5 10  5

10 
Source free RL circuits
Exercise 6
If the switch opens at t = 0, find :
i), iL(t), wL(0)and iR(t) for t  0
ii) Value of iL at t = 5 sec.

t=0
iL(t)

10  15 A 10  5 5H
First Order Circuits:Lesson Outcomes

• Understand the concept of singularity

functions and relate with application in
electric circuits
• Formulate the step response of an RC and RL
circuits
Unit step function
Unit Step Function
• Unit step function is one type of singularity function,
useful in circuit analysis.
• It can be used as a good approximation to the
switching signals.
• Three most widely used singularity functions are unit
step, unit impulse and unit ramp functions.
• The unit step function u(t) is 0 for
negative values of t and 1 for
positive values of t.
0, t  0
• In mathematical terms: u (t )  
1, t  0
Unit Step Function
• Below are the images for delayed unit step
function (a) and advanced (b) by t0

0, t  t0 0, t  t0

u (t  t0 )   u (t  t0 )  
1, t  t0 1, t  t0
Step Response of an RC circuit
Step Response of an RC circuit
• The step response of a circuit is its behavior when
the excitation is the step function (a voltage or a
current source).
• In other words, it is the response of the circuit due to
a sudden application of dc voltage or current source.
• For finding the step response of an RC circuit, we
break the v(t) into natural response and forced
response:
Complete response = natural response + forced response
stored energy independent source
Step Response of an RC circuit
• In mathematical form:
v  vn  v f
• Where vn  V0 e t 
v f  Vs (1  e t  )
• A forced response is produced by the circuit when an
external force is applied.
• A natural response refers to the behavior of the
circuit itself with no external source of excitation.
• The natural response eventually dies out along with
the transient component of the forced response.
Step Response of an RC circuit
• Expending the equation for complete response:
v  vn  v f
t  t 
v  V0 e  Vs (1  e )
 V0 e t   Vs  Vs e t 
t  t 
 Vs  V0 e  Vs e
t  t 
 Vs  (V0  Vs )e  v()  (v(0)  v())e

• If the switch changes position at time, t = t0 (with

time delay), the response becomes:
 ( t t 0 ) 
v(t )  v()  (V0 (t0 )  v())e
Step Response of an RC circuit
Example 4
Refer to RC circuit below. Assume the switch has
been open for a long time and is closed at t =0.
Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5 s

2 6

+ _
+
_ 10 V v 1/3 F 5V
+
_
Step Response of an RC circuit
Solution for Example 4
For t < 0, switch is closed. Capacitor act as o/c.
v (0-) = 10 V = v(0).
At t = 0, switch is closed.
 = ReqC = (2//6)*1/3 = 3/2*1/3 = 0.5 s
v() =

2 6

+ _
+
_ 10 V v 1/3 F 5V +
_
Step Response of an RL circuit
 Conclusion
• Nodal
The End