Presentation on

LATEST TECHNOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENTS
IN
VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES

By
MR. P S BHAT
Kirloskar Electric Co. Ltd.
1. INTRODUCTION

Induction motors are the workhorses of the industry and they drive most of
the industrial equipment. They are popular with the users due to their low cost,
rugged construction and low maintenance cost. Every user is equipped to repair
the motors without any help from the manufacturers. Only limitation of these
motors is that they operate approximately at constant speed and they are not
amendable for speed control by electrical means without sacrificing their basic
advantages. Hence industry adopted inefficient methods for system operation
(Damper control for fan, valve control for pump etc.) or DC motor speed control.
With the advancement in power electronics and microelectronics highly reliable
induction motor drive has become possible. Performance of DC drives has been
attained and even surpassed by Variable Frequency Drive (VFD). For most of the
applications AC drives are replacing DC drives due to their inherent advantages.
2. PRINCIPLES OF VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE
The speed of an Induction machine is related to the supply frequency by the
following equation,
N=120f (1-s)/P --------------------------------------(1)
N=Speed in rpm
F=Supply frequency
S=Motor slip

Output torque of the motor is expressed by the following equation,

T=3VIcosmx974/N ----------------------------- (2)

T=Motor output Torque (Kg-m)
V=Line to Line voltage (kV)
I=Line Current (A)
cos=Power factor
m=Motor efficiency

If motor slip is considered to be negligible and motor efficiency, P.F and No. of poles
are considered to be constant. Equation (2) simplifies as given below:

T=K VI/f --------------------------------------------- (3)

K=Constant
From the equations (1) and (3) it is clear that induction motor speed is
directly proportional to frequency. But output torque is inversely
proportional to frequency unless volt-ampere is increased proportional to
frequency.

Upto the base frequency, constant torque is available from the motor as the
motor air gap flux can be maintained constant by maintaining V/f ratio. As
it is not possible to maintain this ratio above the base frequency, voltage is
maintained constant while varying the frequency. As a result of the same
torque capability of the motor falls inversely with speed. If volt-ampere
product is maintained, output power can be same irrespective of the
frequency. Accordingly Speed-Torque characteristic is classified Constant
Torque and Constant Power range as given in Fig-1.
Speed – Torque characteristics of the motor with V/f characteristics given
above are given in Fig-2. It can be observed that torque capability of the
motor is reduced at low frequency even when V/f ratio is maintained
constant. This is due to the dominance of stator resistance drop which can
be compensated providing voltage boost at low frequencies.

The Pullout Torque (POT) of the Induction Motor is proportional to (V/f)2

and hence POT of the motor falls in the constant power range. This factor
limits the actual constant power range achievable with induction motor.

Fig-2 Speed-Torque Characteristics of Induction Motor with frequency

control
3.CONFIGURATIONS OF VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES
3.1 Six-step voltage source inverter drive
In this configuration a Three Phase controlled bridge rectifier converts the
AC to variable DC which is impressed at the input of a bridge inverter as
shown in Fig-3. The inverter generates a variable frequency power supply to
control the speed of the motor. Normally each inverter device conducts for
1800 to generate a square wave voltage at the machine phase with respect to
the centre point of the DC supply. The line to line voltage and the line
curent waveforms are shown in Fig-4. The feedback diodes used in the
inverter section help the circulation of load reactive power to the filter

capacitor and maintain the output voltage wave clamped to the level of DC
link voltage.

Fig –3 Block Diagram of six stepped VSI Fig-4 Output voltage & current
waveforms
This type of Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) is popular because of its high
efficiency and operational simplicity. The harmonic components of motor
current causes torque pulsation limiting constant torque speed range.
Harmonics in the output voltage increase the motor heating considerably.
Since the DC link voltage is controlled by a controlled rectifier, at lower
output frequencies the input power factor tends to deteriorates. Nowadays
this type of AC drives have been superseded by PWM drives.

3.1 Current Source Inverter (CSI) Drive

In a current source inverter, a phase controlled rectifier generates variable
DC voltage which is converted to a current source by connecting a large
inductor in series. The inverter devices steer the current source
systematically to three phases of the machine to generate a variable
frequency, six stepped current wave. The block diagram and waveforms of
CSI are shown in Fig-5 and Fig-6.

The CSI drive has some advantages. The power circuit is rugged and
reliable and there is no possibility of shoot through fault as in a VSI. The
inverter may also sustain from occasional commutational failure. Any fault
on the inverter side causes slow rise of current which can be cleared by
rectifier gate suppression. During regeneration, the inverter firing angle
with respect to the machine voltage wave is adjusted such that the input
voltage reverses in polarity. This makes the regeneration process simple in
the case of CSI.
Inspite of the advantages mentioned above it has some limitations. The
frequency range of inverter is somewhat lower and large size of the DC link
inductor makes the inverter bulky and expensive. Even though the motor
terminal voltage is apparent sinusoidal, clamping circuits are needed to
suppress the voltage spikes induced during the current change over from one
switch to another. Due to the large inductor used the overall efficiency is
poor. The response of the drive is sluggish and tends to give stability
problem at light load high speed conditions. Because of all these limitations
CSI is not used lower power ratings.

Fig-5 Block Diagram of CSI Fig-6 Output Voltage & Current Waveforms

3.3 PWM Voltage Source Inverter Drive

In a PWM inverter drive an uncontrolled rectifier converts the output AC to
a constant DC link voltage. In this method the inverter switches are turned
on and off many times within a half cycle to obtain a variable voltage output.
A voltage reference is compared with a high frequency carrier to generate the
switching pulses. The fundamental output voltage can be varied by variation of
the modulation index. The block diagram is shown in Fig-7. Since the output
voltage waveform has low harmonic content motor current is very near to
sinusoidal waveform as shown in Fig-8.

Fig-7 Block Diagram of PWM VSI Fig-8 Output Voltage & Current Waveforms

As diode bridge rectifier is used at the input, the power factor will be constant and
nearly unity irrespective of the output frequency. The response of the drive will be
faster and the overall efficiency is higher compared to other configurations. As
torque pulsation is avoided the motor can be operated smoothly at very low speeds.
The motor heating will be reduced because of the lower harmonic losses. Even
though the control is complex the implementation is simplified by the advent of
dedicated microcomputers and Digital Signal Processors (DSP). These drives are
very popular up to 1000kW range.
4 DEVICES FOR INVERTER CONTROL
The power devices used in inverter drives are Thyristor, Gate Turn-off
Thyristor (GTO), Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) and Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). Their symbols are given Fig-9.

The important aspects considered while selecting the device are Voltage
and Current ratings, Control Requirements, Power loss in the device,
Maximum operating frequency and Cost.

4.1 Thyristor
Thyristor is a current controlled device. Once triggered it will continue
to conduct until the current goes to zero. Separate commutating circuits
are required to turn OFF Thyristor used in inverter configuration. As the
switching times is more it cannot be used above switching frequencies
above 2kHz. Overall dimension and cost of VFD will be increased due
to the additional components required for the commutation. Efficiency
of VFD will also be reduced apart from increased audible noise.
4.2 Gate Turn-off Thyristor
GTO is a device that can be turned ON like a Thyristor with a single pulse of
gate current, but in addition it has the capability of being turned OFF by
injecting a negative gate current pulse. This avoids the necessity for
separate commutation components in power circuit. GTOs are available
with large power handling capabilities and used in large capacity VFDs.
Other characteristics are similar to that of a thyristor.

4.3 Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJT is also a current controlled device with high current gain. It does not
require any separate commutating scheme and can be turned OFF by
removing base current. It can be operated at higher frequencies upto 5kHz.
They are suitable for lower and medium range VFDs. BJT requires base
current approximately 1-2% of the collector current which increases the
control power requirements. BJTs are replaced by IGBTs in new generation
VFDs due to their superior performance.

4.4 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

MOSFET is a voltage controlled fast switching device. Switching losses are
less whereas the conduction losses are more. MOSFET’s are not available
with higher current and voltage ratings. Hence in low power and low
voltage rating VFDs MOSFETs can be used.
4.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

IGBTs are widely used as inverter switching devices. Fast switching

capability, lower losses and availability in higher power ratings have made it
popular in VFDs. IGBT is a voltage controlled device which combines the
attributes of MOSFET and BJT. They can be switched at frequencies upto
20kHz. IGBT characteristics are more suitable for paralleling of multiple
devices and hence extensively used in medium and high power VFDs.

The latest trend in this field is the introduction of Intelligent Power Modules
(IPM) which integrates the IGBTs with the necessary gate drive and
protection circuits. For lower rating IPMs are available with inbuilt input
rectifier also. This reduces the wiring and space requirements and makes the
drive more reliable.

Research is going on to develop new devices like MOS Controlled Thyristor

(MCT), Static Induction Transistor (SIT) and Static Induction Thyristor
(SITH) for high power handling capacity having higher operating frequency
and lower conduction losses which is expected to help the development of
large power, compact and highly efficient VFDs.
5. CONTROL PHILOSOPHIES USED IN VFDS
Different methodologies are adopted for controlling the speed and torque of
an induction motor. Popular among them are VVVF Control, Field Oriented
Control (FOC) and Sensorless Vector Control. The control scheme is
implemented with a microcomputer which makes the system more simple
and reliable. The computations, decision making processes and diagnostic
tools can be easily achieved by the microcomputer software.

5.1 VVVF Control

This is a simpel control strategy wherein voltage and frequency are
controlled as per the pre-set pattern. The motor speed is slip dependent and
hence speed regulation is poor at low frequencies. Speed regulation is
improved to +1% of max. speed by slip compensation.

At low frequencies the stator resistance effect can be compensated by

providing more voltage at the motor terminals compared to a value required
to maintain V/f ratio. A tacho or encoder feedback will improve the speed
regulation. As the control is independent of motor parameters it is suitable
for Multimotor drive. High frequency operation is possible to meet the
special requirements like internal grinding machines. The major drawback
of this control method is its poor dynamic response. Block diagram of a
typical VVVF drive is given in Fig-10.
Fig-10 Block Diagram of VVVF Drive
5.1 Field Oriented Control
The transient response of an induction motor drive is somewhat sluggish
with the conventional VVVF control method because both torque and flux
are functions of stator voltage and frequency. By using the vector or field
oriented control (FOC) method the performance of the induction motor can
be made almost identical to that of a separately excited DC motor. The FOC
consists of controlling the stator currents represented by a vector. This
control is based on projections which transform a three phase time and speed
dependent system in a two co-ordinate (d and q axis) time invariant system.
These projections lead to a structure similar to that of a DC machine control.
FOC drives need two components as reference i.e. torque component (q-
axis) and flux component (d-axis). FOC is simply based on a control
structure handling instantaneous electrical quantities. This makes the
control accurate both at transient and steady state operation.

Phasor representation of various motor

vectors are as shown in Fig-11.
=Rotor flux angle iqs=Torque component
of stator current
ids=Flux component of stator current
Vs=Stator voltage vector
a,b,c=Stator current axis ,=Equivalent
two orthogonal axis
d,q=Orthogonal axis with ref. To rotor flux
is=Stator current vector R=Rotor flux
Fig-12 shows a block diagram of a field oriented control scheme using a
Current Regulated PWM inverter. The speed error is fed to the speed
controller to generate the torque command TR, which is compared with the
calculated torque T for precise torque control. The torque error generates
the quadrature axis reference current iqsR. The direct axis reference current
idsR is produced by a magnetising current control loop in which the reference
current imR is compared with the actual value imR. Below base speed imrR is
held constant but field weakening is implemented above base speed by
making imrR speed dependent using a function generator .

The two axis reference currents iqsR and idsR undergo a co-ordinate
transformation in two-phase stator based quantities (- axis) followed by a
two phase to three phase transformation which generates the stator reference
currents iasR ibsR icsR. These reference currents are reproducted in the stator
phases by Current Regulated PWM inverter.

The vector rotation I sbased on the rotor flux angle p and hence a precise
information on rotor flux position is vital. The block diagram explained
incorporates a flux model for acquisition of the flux vector. Induction motor
losses its characteristic non-linear features and the dynamic interaction sof
the drive are simplified. There is no pullout effect and if the motor is
overloaded or if the speed reference is changed too rapidly the speed error
signal saturates and the torque will be limited by the prescribed maximum
value.
5.1 Sensorless vector control
FOC needs speed feedback by encorder/tachometer for accurate
measurement of rotor flux position. This calls for modifying the standard
induction motor with facility to mount the speed sensor on the motor shaft.
This renders the motor special which is not desirable in most of the
applications.
In Sensorless vector control using accurate motor model actual torque,
speed and rotor flux are computed. This calls for accurate knowledge of
motor parameters which are measured by the drive at the time of
commissioning. Control signals are derived from the error between the
reference and computed values.
Sensorless vector controlled drives give good dynamic response and
speed regulation (better than + 0.5% of max. speed). Torque can be
controlled independently and hence suitable for torque control and torque
limit applications which cannot be supported by VVVF drives. Only
limitation of these drives is that these drives are not amenable for group
drive applications. Current trend in VFDs is to incorporate sensorless
control and VVVF control together to overcome this limitation.

6. CONCLUSION
VFDs adopt digital technology which is flexible and user friendly. Power
Devices used in VFDs have made them more reliable and highly efficient
(Efficiency > 98%). VFDs with Bus compatibility are also amenable for
centralised control from plant controllers. Combination of higher
reliability, higher efficiency with communication capability is making
VFDs popular in all sectors of industry. With these features VFDs are
expected to be the natural choice for Variable Speed requirements in the
next millennium.