Analysis and Testing of Polymers

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was developed to investigate the electrically
non-conductive materials, like proteins.
•AFM is very useful to image polymers and enables examination of even single
polymer molecules, suitable for polymers, polymer blends, polymer composites.
•Used to establish structure-property relationships.
•Lateral resolution is ~10nm.
•Information obtained includes morphology, dispersion, domain size, internal
structure .
•Phase imaging is excellent method for contrast where contrast is based on
material/mechanical properties such as stiffness and adhesion.

Block copolymer Polymer blend

Analysis and Testing of Polymers
The technique
A schematic representation of the basic AFM setup is shown. Using atomic force microscopy
(AFM), a tip attached to a flexible cantilever will move across the sample surface to measure
the surface morphology on the atomic scale. The forces between the tip and the sample are
measured during scanning, by monitoring the deflection of the cantilever. This force is a
function of tip sample separation and the material properties of the tip and the sample.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Force between the sample and the tip
For a quantitative analysis of the interaction between the tip and the substrate all the
contributing forces will take into account. The forces between the tip and the substrate have
short- and long-range contributions. When measurements are performed, it is crucial to
separate the contributions of various forces and eliminate the undesired ones. This ensures the
measurement of desired sample properties only and makes further quantitative analysis
possible.

•In vacuum, chemical forces of very short range (less than 1 nm), electrostatic, magnetic and
Van der Waals forces can be determined

•While in air forces with longer range (up to100 nm) make the measurements mostly qualitative.

•At room conditions water moisture can condense on the tip, which is a source of capillary force.
Capillary forces are relatively big and can cover the contributions of other forces;
therefore they have to be avoided if possible. The latter is possible by measuring in
special, water free conditions, like in a N2 or Ar atmosphere or in liquid environments.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
AFM modes
1. Contact mode
Contact mode was the first developed mode of atomic force microscopy. In this mode, the tip is
Moving across the surface and deflects according to its profile. Two types of contact mode
measurements are known, the constant force and the constant height mode.
In the constant force type, a feedback loop is used to move the sample or the tip up and down
and keep its deflection constant. The value of z-movement is equal to the height changes of the
sample’s surface. The result of such measurement is the information about the
surfacetopography.
At the constant height, while the forces are changing, the cantilever deflection is measured
directly and the deflection force on the tip is used to calculate the distance from the surface.
Since no feedback loop is required for this type of measurement, it is appropriate for quick
scans of samples with small height differences (if height differences are big, the tip will very
likely crash into the surface, by which it gets destroyed or damages the samples’ surface). With
this type of measurements atomic resolution was achieved at low temperatures and in high
vacuum. Such measurements are often used for quick examination of fast changes in
biological structures.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
2. Noncontact mode
In noncontact mode, the sample’s surface is
investigated using big spring constant
cantilevers. The tip attached to the cantilever is
hovering very close to the surface (at a
distance of approximately 5-10 nm), but never
gets into contact with it, hence the name
noncontact mode.
A major advantage of this mode is negligible
friction forces, making this mode capable for
measurements of biological and polymeric
samples without alteration of their surface.

The biggest drawbacks of this mode are low

lateral and z-resolution when compared to the
contact mode. Recently it was used for
characterization of single polymer chains.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
3.Amplitude, modulation mode or dynamic
force mode
This mode is often called the intermittent-
contact or tapping mode and it eliminates
major weaknesses of the noncontact mode
(such as the low lateral and z-resolution).
Instead of hovering above the sample, the
cantilever vibrates above the surface and
moves through the force gradient above the
surface, during which it might momentarily
touch the surface.
Due to interactions of the AFM tip with the
sample surface, the amplitude of vibrations
decreases and a phase shift occurs. Amplitude
or phase shift either of these parameters
can choose and keep it constant through the
feedback loop by moving either the sample or
the tip in z-direction. This gives us information
about the surface topography similar to the
contact mode.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Sample Preparation
AFM imaging requires flat surfaces for imaging. However, polymer samples may require
additional sample preparation beyond this. If there is a sample with a "skin", or a sample
that has been processed and only the inner bulk material needs to be imaged, it will need to be
cryomicrotomed for AFM imaging. Cryomicrotoming is a process by which a very smooth surface
is cut and prepared at cold temperatures on a cryomicrotome. Many samples such as thin films
or coated films can be imaged as it is without this preparation.
Atomically flat surfaces are free of surface roughness and proper choice of an inert material for
their preparation makes it possible to gather reliable high resolution data after desired sample
attachment. Prior to any preparation steps, all used laboratory accessories were cleaned in a
multi-step procedure, combining different chemicals, to assure extreme cleanliness. In the next
step, high-grade mica was coated with gold of high purity. A two stage heating/annealing step
was introduced afterwards, which yielded atomically flat gold terraces of sizes in the range from
a couple hundred nm to 2 microns.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Tip functionalization
Mapping chemical functional groups and examining their interactions with different materials is
of significant importance for problems ranging from lubrication and adhesion, to the recognition
of biological systems, composites, and pharmacy. At the moment, one of the most promising
AFM related techniques for polymer examination is surely the chemical force microscopy (CFM).
CFM enables the measurement of interactions appearing between polymer molecules or
polymers, and different surfaces. A CFM experiment has to be conducted with specially designed
tips, which for themselves act as chemical sensors. Success of such measurements is impossible
without proper tips, so choosing the right ones is crucial in this regard.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
X-ray diffraction (XRD)
X-ray diffraction relies on the dual wave/particle nature of X-rays to obtain information about
the structure of crystalline materials. The dominant effect that occurs when an incident beam
of monochromatic X-rays interacts with a target material is scattering of those X-rays from
atoms within the target material. In materials with regular structure (i.e. crystalline), the
scattered X-rays undergo constructive and destructive interference. This is the process of
diffraction. X-ray diffraction has been applied to many different types of applications including
thin film analysis, sample texture evaluation, monitoring of crystalline phase and structure, and
investigation of sample stress and strain.
Interference: The principle of superposition of waves states that if a crest of a wave meets a
crest of another wave of the same frequency at the same point, then the magnitude of the
displacement is the sum of the individual magnitudes – this is constructive interference. If a
crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave then the magnitude of the displacements is
equal to the difference in the individual magnitudes – this is known as destructive interference.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers

Resultant wave

Wave 1

Wave 2

Constructive Destructive
interference interference

X-rays is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01
to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×10 16
Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. X-ray wavelengths are shorter than
those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. X-radiation is also referred as
Röntgen radiation, after Wilhelm Röntgen, who is usually credited as its discoverer.
Electromagnetic radiation composed of photons that carry minimum-ionization energy, or more,
(which includes the entire spectrum with shorter wavelengths), is therefore termed ionizing
radiation.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Electro magnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are synchronized
oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light. The oscillations
of the two fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy
and wave propagation, forming a transverse wave. Electromagnetic waves can be characterized
by either the frequency or wavelength of their oscillations to form the electromagnetic
spectrum, which includes, in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength: radio
waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.
Electromagnetic waves are produced whenever charged particles are accelerated, and these
waves can subsequently interact with any charged particles.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Bragg’s Law
Crystals are regular arrays of atoms, and X-rays can be considered waves of electromagnetic
radiation. Atoms scatter X-ray waves, primarily through the atoms' electrons. This phenomenon
is known as elastic scattering, and the electron is known as the scatterer. A regular array of
scatterers produces a regular array of spherical waves. Although these waves cancel one another
out in most directions through destructive interference, they add constructively in a few specific
directions, determined by Bragg's law.

nλ=2dsinθ
where,
λ = the wavelength of the x-ray
d = the spacing of the crystal layers (path difference) between diffracting planes
θ = the incident angle (the angle between incident ray and the scatter plane)
n = an integer

These specific directions appear as spots on the diffraction pattern called reflections. Thus, X-ray
diffraction results from an electromagnetic wave (the X-ray) impinging on a regular array of
scatterers (the repeating arrangement of atoms within the crystal).
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Derivation of Bragg’s law

Suppose that a single monochromatic wave (of any type) is incident on aligned planes of lattice
points, with separation d at angle Ɵ. Points A and C are on one plane, and B is on the plane
below. Points ABCC' form a quadrilateral. There will be a path difference between the ray that
gets reflected along AC' and the ray that gets transmitted, then reflected, along AB and BC
respectively. This path difference is

The two separate waves will arrive at a point with the same phase, and hence undergo
constructive interference, if and only if this path difference is equal to any integer value of the
wavelength, i.e.

Therefore,

from which it follows that,

Putting everything together

Analysis and Testing of Polymers
which simplifies to

If only two planes of atoms were diffracting, as shown in the pictures, then the transition from
constructive to destructive interference would be gradual as a function of angle, with gentle
maxima at the Bragg angles. However, since many atomic planes are interfering in real materials,
very sharp peaks surrounded by mostly destructive interference result.

If after reflection emerging waves are in If emerging reflected waves have

phase, reflected intensity is observed, opposite phase, no reflected intensity will be
ie, Bragg's Law is fulfilled. observed, ie, Bragg's Law is not fulfilled.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
The diffraction of X-rays by crystals is described by Bragg’s Law.
•The directions of possible diffractions depend on the size and shape of the unit cell of the
material.
•The intensities of the diffracted waves depend on the kind and arrangement of atoms in the
crystal structure.
•However, most materials are not single crystals, but are composed of many tiny crystallites in all
possible orientations called a polycrystalline aggregate or powder. When a powder with
randomly oriented crystallites is placed in an X-ray beam, the beam will see all possible
interatomic planes. If the experimental angle is systematically changed, all possible diffraction
peaks from the powder will be detected.

Production of X-rays
X-rays are generated in a cathode ray tube by heating a filament to produce electrons,
accelerating the electrons toward a target by applying a voltage, and bombarding the target
material with electrons. When electrons have sufficient energy to dislodge inner shell electrons
of the target material, characteristic X-ray spectra are produced. These spectra consist of several
components, the most common being Kα and Kβ. Kα consists, in part, of Kα1 and Kα2. Kα1 has a
slightly shorter wavelength and twice the intensity as K α2. The specific wavelengths are
characteristic of the target material (Cu, Fe, Mo, Cr). Filtering, by foils or crystal
monochrometers, is required to produce monochromatic X-rays needed for diffraction. K α1and
Kα2 are sufficiently close in wavelength such that a weighted average of the two is used. Copper
is the most common target material for single-crystal diffraction, with CuK α radiation = 1.5418Å.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Types
• Micro (µXRD)
• Parallel Beam XRD
• Parallel Beam XRD for Powder
• Parallel Beam XRD for Stress
• Parallel Beam XRD for Crystal
• Parallel Beam XRD for Texture
• Protein Crystallography
• Neutron Diffraction
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Instrumentation
These X-rays are collimated and directed onto the sample. As the sample and detector are
rotated, the intensity of the reflected X-rays is recorded. When the geometry of the incident X-
rays impinging the sample satisfies the Bragg Equation, constructive interference occurs and a
peak in intensity occurs. A detector records and processes this X-ray signal and converts the
signal to a count rate which is then output to a device such as a printer or computer monitor.
XRD is mostly used for identifying minerals that are unknown. However, the nature of other
substances can be identified as well.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Analysis and Testing of Polymers

This is a diffractogram and the peaks show where an X-Ray has been diffracted by the crystal
lattice being analyzed. The spacing are unique for each mineral and thus can easily lead to
identification.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers

a is the length of the unit cell

Analysis and Testing of Polymers
 Counts/s
PLA

3000

2000

1000

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Position [°2Theta] (Copper (Cu))
Pos. [°2Th.] Height [cts] FWHM Left d-spacing [Å] Rel. Int. [%]
[°2Th.]
12.8046 21.79 0.7872 6.91369 2.32 Pos. Height FWHM Left d-spacing Rel. Int.
14.9594 59.05 0.4723 5.92231 6.28 [°2Th.] [cts] [°2Th.] [Å] [%]
16.5924 819.50 0.1181 5.34295 87.16 12.5191 14.31 0.9446 7.07073 1.91
16.7331 940.20 0.1574 5.29832 100.00 14.5503 28.71 0.3149 6.08790 3.82
19.1182 218.67 0.1574 4.64240 23.26 16.5381 751.04 0.4330 5.36038 100.00
22.3701 59.94 0.4723 3.97434 6.37 18.8938 155.03 0.6298 4.69702 20.64
24.8339 33.94 0.4723 3.58534 3.61 22.1900 44.40 0.4723 4.00620 5.91
27.3881 21.07 0.4723 3.25651 2.24 24.8440 3.18 0.6298 3.58391 0.42
29.3160 30.32 0.9446 3.04660 3.23 27.0131 7.63 0.6298 3.30086 1.02
31.1298 27.13 0.4723 2.87310 2.89 28.8658 23.48 0.6298 3.09307 3.13
35.4427 14.06 0.9446 2.53274 1.50 31.1758 10.17 0.6298 2.86896 1.35
67.0318 3.06 0.2362 1.39620 0.32
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Thermal analysis
A group of techniques in which a physical property of a substance or its reaction products is
measured as a function of a controlled temperature applied to identify and characterize any
sample.
Thermal analytical techniques
•Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA): Analysis of mass change
•as a function of temperature
•as a function of time at a given temperature
•Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC): Quantification of heat flow
•as a function of temperature
•as a function of time at a given temperature
•Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)
•Modulus
•Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)
•Dimension
•Melt Flow Rheology (MFI)
and more like DTA, DTG
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
ThermoGravimetric Analysis (TGA)

Principle: TGA measures the amount and the rate of weight change of a material with respect
to temperature or time in controlled environments.

A TGA consists of three major parts a furnace,

1. A microgram balance
2. An auto sampler and
3. A thermocouple.
•The furnace can raise the temperature as high as 1000°C which is made of quartz.

•The auto sampler helps to load the samples on to the microbalance.

•Typically 10-20mg of sample is preferred in most applications. Whereas, if the sample has
volatiles 50-100mg of sample is considered adequate.

•Samples are heated at a rate of 10 or 20°C/min in most cases. Lowering the heating rates is
known to improve the resolution of overlapping weight losses.

•Nitrogen is the most common gas used to purge samples in TGA due to its inert nature.
Whereas, helium provides the best baseline. Air is known to improve resolution because of a
difference in the oxidative stability of components in the sample. Vacuum may be used where
the sample contains volatile components.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Thermogram

Data analysis
•Thermogram is a mass Vs temperature curve, sometimes given as % of original mass.

•Draw a tangent of the curve to find the onset and offset points.

•mi, mf and Δm are fundamental properties of the smple at Ti and Tf depending on

operating variables.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Typical TGA curves

Application of TGA
•Evaporation of free (unbound) water begins at room temperature due to dry gas flowing over
the sample.
•Dehydration/Desolvation of bound water almost always begins at temperatures above room
temperature and typically 125°C.
•Decomposition can have multiple stages (weight losses) but the presence of multiple weight
loss steps can also indicate the presence of multiple components in the sample.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
•A calorimeter measures the heat into or out of a sample.
• A differential calorimeter measures the heat of a sample relative to a reference.
• A differential scanning calorimeter does all of the above and heats the sample with a linear
temperature ramp.
• Endothermic heat flows into the sample
•Exothermic heat flows out of the sample

Principle
DSC is a thermo-analytical technique in which the difference in the amount of heat required to
increase the temperature of a sample and reference is measured as a function of temperature.
The differences in heat flow occur with the occurrence of two major events:
1) The heat capacity of the sample which increases with temperature
2) Transitions that occur in the sample (events superimposed on the heat capacity)

Operation
•A sample is placed inside a crucible which is then placed inside the measurement cell (furnace)
of the DSC system along with a reference pan which is normally empty (inert gas may be used).
•By applying a controlled temperature program (isothermal, heating or cooling at constant
rates), phase changes can be characterized and/or the specific heat of a material can be
determined.
•Heat flow quantities are calculated based on calibrated heat flow characteristics of the cell.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
DSC thermogram
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
 Comparison of First and Second Heating Runs
-0.04

-0.08 First 155.93°C

Heat Flow (W/g)

Tg
-0.12 Residual Cure

Second 102.64°C
-0.16 Tg 20.38J/g

-0.20

-0.24
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C)
The first heat will assess the material’s properties in the as-molded condition. Processing
and storage conditions can impact the glass transition temperature and initial crystallinity o
PET. Heating the sample above the melt transition and the cooling at a controlled rate will
erase the thermal history of the sample and impart a known thermal profile upon the
sample. The second heat will evaluate the inherent properties of the material and can
sometimes be used to differentiate various batches of a material.
 42

06/27/19
 Polymer characterization
exo

Polymer A

Polymer B
endo

Blend of A+B

• Thermogram of the blend shows two distinct Tg.

• Therefore, the components of this blend are immiscible in each other
43

06/27/19
 This is due to aging

44

06/27/19
 Some possible processes giving enthalpic peaks
Process Exotherm Endotherm
Solid-solid transition * *
Crystallization *
Melting *
Vaporisation *
Sublimation *
Adsorption *
Desorption *
Desolvation (drying) *
Decomposition * *
Solid-solid reaction * *
Solid-liquid reaction * *
Solid-gas reaction * *
Curing *
Polymerization *
47
Catalytic reactions *
06/27/19
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
•Tg, Glass Transition Temperature
•Temperature (°C) at which amorphous polymers or an amorphous part of a crystalline
polymer go from a hard brittle state to a soft rubbery state
•Tm, Melting point
•Temperature (°C) at which a crystalline polymer melts
•Δ Hm, Energy Absorbed (joules/gram)
•Amount of energy a sample absorbs when melting
•Tc, Crystallization Point
•Temperature (°C) at which a polymer crystallizes upon heating or cooling
•Δ Hc Energy Released (joules/gram)
•Amount of energy a sample releases when crystallizing
Analysis and Testing of Polymers

ThermoMechanical Analysis (TMA)

Constant Heating Rate
Initial Temp
Final Temp
Heating Rate (°C/min)
Data
•Size of Sample vs Time (or Temp.)

Measures
•Thermal Expansion Coefficient
•Volume change on crystalization or
crystal transformations
•Sintering
•Glass Transitions in Polymers
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Coefficient of thermal expansion
The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the material's
coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature. Over small temperature
ranges, the linear nature of thermal expansion leads to expansion relationships for length, area,
and volume in terms of the linear expansion coefficient .
Analysis and Testing of Polymers

The TMA is operated under the heating rate at 10°C /min, applied stress of 0.1 N; flat tip quartz
expansion probe with outer diameter 0.125 mm, gas purge nitrogen at 50 mL/min, sample in a
DSC pan and the probe is applied onto the packed crystalline powder, and the sample size in
the DSC pan is 100 mgs.

TMA consists of a quartz stage, a quartz probe, furnace which sits on top of the stage, equipped
with inlet for purge gas, thermocouple adjacent to the stage and a LVDT (linear variable
differential transformer) attached to the probe, which measures the difference in the dimensions
caused under the probe.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)
• Constant Heating Rate
– Initial Temp
– Final Temp
– Heating Rate (°C/min)
• Data
– Force vs Time (or Temp.)
– Force delay vs Time (or Temp.)
– Viscoelastic Properties
• Storage and Loss Modulus
• Measures
– Glass Transition
– Viscoelastic Properties
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Viscoelasticity
Viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics
when undergoing deformation.
Depending on the change of strain rate versus
stress inside a material the viscosity can be
categorized as having a linear, non-linear, or
plastic response. When a material exhibits a
linear response it is categorized as a Newtonian
material. In this case the stress is linearly
proportional to the strain rate. If the material
exhibits a non-linear response to the strain rate,
it is categorized as Non-Newtonian fluid.

A viscoelastic material has the following properties:

•hysteresis is seen in the stress–strain curve

•stress relaxation occurs: step constant strain causes decreasing stress
•creep occurs: step constant stress causes increasing strain
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
An immediate consequence of the viscoelasticity of polymers is that their deformations under
stress are time dependent.
•If the imposed mechanical stress is held constant then the resultant strain will increase with
time, i.e. the polymer creeps. When a stress is applied to a viscoelastic material such as a
polymer, parts of the long polymer chain change positions. This movement or rearrangement
causes Creep.
•If a constant deformation is imposed then the induced stress will relax with time (stress
relaxation).

stress relaxation
creep
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Hysteresis
Purely elastic materials do not dissipate energy (heat) when a load is applied, then removed.
However, a viscoelastic substance loses energy when a load is applied, then removed.
Hysteresis is observed in the stress–strain curve, with the area of the loop being equal to the
energy lost during the loading cycle. Since viscosity is the resistance to thermally activated
plastic deformation, a viscous material will lose energy through a loading cycle. Plastic
deformation results in lost energy, which is uncharacteristic of a purely elastic material's
reaction to a loading cycle.

Purely Elastic Viscoelastic

 Mechanical Test Considerations
• Principle factors are in three main areas
– manner in which the load is applied
– condition of material specimen at time of test
– surrounding conditions (environment) during testing
• Tests classification- load application
– kind of stress induced. Single load or Multiple loads
– rate at which stress is developed: static versus dynamic
– number of cycles of load application: single versus fatigue
• Primary types of loading

tension compression

torsion
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Mechanical Testing

Ultimate Tensile Strength - The maximum tensile stress that a material is capable of
developing during a test.
Load- Applied force either pounds or newtons.
Stress - The intensity of the internally-distributed forces or components of forces that resist a
change in the form of a body. Commonly measured in units dealing with force per unit area,
such as pounds per square inch (PSI or lb/in 2) or Megapascals (Mpa). The three basic types of
stress are tension, compression, and shear. The first two, tension and compression, are called
direct stresses.
Elastic Limit - The greatest amount of stress a material can develop without taking a
permanent set.
Percent Elongation - The total percent strain that a specimen develops during testing.
Yield Point – Also referred to as Elastic Limit, is the point at which any additional stress will
result in permanent deformation.
Yield Strength - The stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting permanent set.
Modulus of Elasticity - Also known as Young’s modulus; calculated by finding the slope of the
stress-strain curve for a given material within the range of its linear proportionality between
stress and strain.
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Tensile loads are those that tend to pull the specimen apart, putting the specimen in tension.
They can be performed on any specimen of known cross-sectional area and gage length to which
a uniform tensile load can be applied.

Engineering Stress and Strain: These quantities are defined relative to the original area and
length of the specimen.
•The engineering stress (e) at any point is defined as the ratio of the instantaneous load or
force (F) and the original area (Ao).
•The engineering strain (e) is defined as the ratio of the change in length (L-Lo) and the original
length (Lo).
•The slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic deformation region is the modulus of elasticity,
which is known as Young's modulus .
Analysis and Testing of Polymers

It is very difficult to find the actual yield strength experimentally. Instead, The stress at
maximum (Fmax/Ao) is referred to as the Ultimate Tensile Strength (TS).
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
True Stress and Strain:
• The true stress () uses the instantaneous or actual area of the specimen at any
given point, as opposed to the original area used in the engineering values.

• The true strain (ε) is defined as the instantaneous elongation per unit length of the
specimen.

• The relationship between the true and engineering values is given by:
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
Analysis and Testing of Polymers
The “gauge length” corresponds to the effective length of the specimen over which the
elongation occurs. Therefore, the initial length of the specimen is taken to be equal to the gauge
length Lg.
MMA
PMMA
Glycolide
Lactide
70/30 PLGA
PLGA 50/50