Data

Communication

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Digital to Analog conversion
• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of
the characteristics of an analog signal based on the
information in digital data.
• Figure shows the relationship between the digital information,
the digital-to-analog modulating process, and the resultant
analog signal.

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 Digital to Analog conversion
• A sine wave is defined by three characteristics: amplitude,
frequency, and phase.
• When we vary any one of these characteristics, we create a
different version of that wave.
• So, by changing one characteristic of a simple electric signal, we
can use it to represent digital data.
• Any of the three characteristics can be altered in this way, giving
us at least three mechanisms for modulating digital data into an
analog signal:
• Amplitude shift keying (ASK),
• Frequency shift keying (FSK), and
• Phase shift keying (PSK).
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 Digital to Analog conversion
• In addition, there is a fourth (and better) mechanism that
combines changing both the amplitude and phase, called
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).
• QAM is the most efficient of these options and is the
mechanism commonly used today.

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Data Element & Signal Element
• A data element is the smallest piece of information to be
exchanged, the bit.
• A signal element is the smallest unit of a signal that is
constant.

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Data Rate vs Signal Rate
• The relationship between these two is

• where N is the data rate (bps) and r is the number of data

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 Example:
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If
1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the bit
rate.

Solution
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We can
find the value of N from
Carrier Signal
• In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-
frequency signal that acts as a base for the information signal.
• This base signal is called the carrier signal or carrier
frequency.
• The receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the carrier
signal that it expects from the sender.
• Digital information then changes the carrier signal by
modifying one or more of its characteristics (amplitude,
frequency, or phase).
• This kind of modification is called modulation (shift keying).

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Amplitude shift keying
• In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is
varied to create signal elements.
• Both frequency and phase remain constant while the
amplitude changes.

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Binary Amplitude shift keying
• Although we can have several levels (kinds) of signal
elements, each with a different amplitude, ASK is normally
implemented using only two levels.
• This is referred to as binary amplitude shift keying or on-off
keying (OOK).
• The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0; the other is the
same as the amplitude of the carrier frequency.

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Bandwidth for ASK
• Although the carrier signal is only one simple sine wave, the
process of modulation produces a non-periodic composite
signal.
• This signal has a continuous set of frequencies.
• The bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate (baud rate).
• However, there is normally another factor involved, called d,
which depends on the modulation and filtering process.
• The value of d is between 0 and 1.
• This means that the bandwidth can be expressed as shown,
where S is the signal rate and the B is the bandwidth.
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Bandwidth for ASK
• The formula shows that the required bandwidth has a
minimum value of S and a maximum value of 2S.
• The most important point here is the location of the
bandwidth.
• The middle of the bandwidth is where fc, the carrier
frequency, is located.
• This means if we have a band-pass channel available, we can
choose our fc so that the modulated signal occupies that
bandwidth.
• This is in fact the most important advantage of digital-to-
analog conversion.
• We can shift the resulting bandwidth to match what is
available. 12
Implementation of BASK

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 Example:
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using ASK with d = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This
means that our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250
kHz. We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the
bit rate (with d = 1 and r = 1).
 Example:
In data communications, we normally use full-duplex
links with communication in both directions. We need to
divide the bandwidth into two with two carrier
frequencies, as shown in the Figure. The figure shows
the positions of two carrier frequencies and the
bandwidths. The available bandwidth for each direction
is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data rate of 25
kbps in each direction.
FSK (Frequency shift keying)
• In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is
varied to represent data.
• The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the
duration of one signal element, but changes for the next signal
element if the data element changes.
• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal
elements.

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BFSK (Binary Frequency shift keying)
• One way to think about binary FSK (or BFSK) is to consider two
carrier frequencies.
• We can select two carrier frequencies, f1 and f2.
• We use the first carrier if the data element is 0; we use the
second if the data element is 1.

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BFSK (Binary Frequency shift keying)
• The middle of one bandwidth is f1 and the middle of the other
is f2.
• Both f1 and f2 are Δf apart from the midpoint between the
two bands.
• The difference between the two frequencies is 2Δf.

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Bandwidth for BFSK
• Figure shows the bandwidth of FSK.
• Again the carrier signals are only simple sine waves, but the
modulation creates a non-periodic composite signal with
continuous frequencies.
• We can think of FSK as two ASK signals, each with its own
carrier frequency ( f1 or f2).
• If the difference between the two frequencies is 2Δf, then the
required bandwidth is: B= (1 + d) x S + 2Δf

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Implementation of BFSK

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PSK (Phase shift keying)
• In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to
represent two or more different signal elements.
• Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the
phase changes.
• Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK.

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BPSK (Binary Phase shift keying)
• The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in which we have only two
signal elements, one with a phase of 0°, and the other with a
phase of 180°.
• Figure gives a conceptual view of PSK.
• Binary PSK is as simple as binary ASK with one big advantage—
it is less susceptible to noise.

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BPSK (Binary Phase shift keying)
• In ASK, the criterion for bit detection is the amplitude of the
signal; in PSK, it is the phase.
• Noise can change the amplitude easier than it can change the
phase.
• In other words, PSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK.
• PSK is superior to FSK because we do not need two carrier
signals.
• However, PSK needs more sophisticated hardware to be able
to distinguish between phases.

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Bandwidth for BPSK
• Figure shows the bandwidth for BPSK.
• The bandwidth is the same as that for binary ASK, but less
than that for BFSK.
• No bandwidth is wasted for separating two carrier signals.

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Implementation of BPSK
• The implementation of BPSK is as simple as that for ASK.
• The reason is that the signal element with phase 180° can be
seen as the complement of the signal element with phase 0°.
• This gives us a clue on how to implement BPSK.
• We use the same idea we used for ASK but with a polar NRZ
signal instead of a unipolar NRZ signal.
• The polar NRZ signal is multiplied by the carrier frequency; the
1 bit (positive voltage) is represented by a phase starting at 0°;
the 0 bit (negative voltage) is represented by a phase starting
at 180°.

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Implementation of BPSK

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BPSK Constellation

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QPSK
• The simplicity of BPSK enticed designers to use 2 bits at a time
in each signal element, thereby decreasing the baud rate and
eventually the required bandwidth.
• The scheme is called quadrature PSK or QPSK because it uses
two separate BPSK modulations; one is in-phase, the other
quadrature (out-of-phase).

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QPSK

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4 PSK Characteristic

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QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)
• PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to distinguish
small differences in phase.
• This factor limits its potential bit rate.
• So far, we have been altering only one of the three
characteristics of a sine wave at a time.
• What if we alter two and combine ASK and PSK?
• The idea of using two carriers, one in-phase and the other
quadrature, with different amplitude levels for each carrier
is the concept behind quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM).

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Analog to Analog Conversion

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Analog-to-analog conversion
• Analog-to-analog conversion, or analog modulation, is the
representation of analog information by an analog signal.
• One may ask why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is
already analog.
• Modulation is needed if the medium is band-pass in nature
or if only a band-pass channel is available to us.
• An example is radio.
• The government assigns a narrow bandwidth to each radio
station.
• The analog signal produced by each station is a low-pass
signal, all in the same range.
• To be able to listen to different stations, the low-pass signals
need to be shifted, each to a different range.
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Analog-to-analog conversion
• Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three
ways:
• Amplitude modulation (AM),
• Frequency modulation (FM), and
• Phase modulation (PM).

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AM (Amplitude Modulation)
• In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its
amplitude varies with the changing amplitudes of the
modulating signal.
• The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same;
only the amplitude changes to follow variations in the
information.
• The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier.
• AM is normally implemented by using a simple multiplier
because the amplitude of the carrier signal needs to be
changed according to the amplitude of the modulating signal.

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AM (Amplitude Modulation)

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Bandwidth Allocation for AM
• The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and music) is usually 5
kHz.
• Therefore, an AM radio station needs a bandwidth of 10 kHz.
• In fact, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allows 10
kHz for each AM station.
• AM stations are allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between
530 and 1700 kHz (1.7 MHz).
• However, each station’s carrier frequency must be separated from
those on either side of it by at least 10 kHz (one AM bandwidth) to
avoid interference.
• If one station uses a carrier frequency of 1100 kHz, the next
station’s carrier frequency cannot be lower than 1110 kHz.

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Bandwidth Allocation for AM

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FM (Frequency Modulation)
• In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is
modulated to follow the changing voltage level (amplitude) of
the modulating signal.
• The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain
constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes,
the frequency of the carrier changes correspondingly.
• Figure shows the relationships of the modulating signal, the
carrier signal, and the resultant FM signal.
• FM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled
oscillator as with FSK.
• The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the input
voltage which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.

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FM (Frequency Modulation)

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PM (Phase Modulation)
• In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated
to follow the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the
modulating signal.
• The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain
constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes,
the phase of the carrier changes correspondingly.
• Figure shows the relationships of the modulating signal, the
carrier signal, and the resultant PM signal.

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PM (Phase Modulation)

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Thank you

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