NUCLEAR POWER

PLANTS
Reserves of natural resources like Coal and
oil are limited and fast depleting…..
Nuclear power is the only alternate source
which can meet the future demands of the
world

A nuclear power plant or nuclear

power station is a thermal power
station in which the heat source is 
a nuclear reactor. 
 Nuclear Power station
• A generating station in which the nuclear energy is converted into electrical
energy is known as Nuclear Power station.
• In a special apparatus , Reactor, heavy elements like Uranium U235 or Thorium
Th232 undergoes nuclear fission reaction and break into two nearly equal parts
with enormous amount of heat energy is released.
• Heat energy released is utilized in raising steam at high temperature and pressure
to run steam turbine.
• Turbine drives the alternator and convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
• 1Kg of U235 can produce energy as much as 4500 Tons of high grade Coal.
• Extraction/ recovery of Uranium U235 or Thorium Th232 Expensive and difficult.
CHEMICAL & NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Chemical Reactions
• Although the molecules changes, each atom participate as a whole and retain
its identity. Only the valence electrons are shared or exchanged. The nuclei do
not change.
• Number of atoms in reactants = Number of atoms in Product
Nuclear reactions
• The products do not have the reactants nuclei but some other nuclei.
• The number of nucleons in the product are the same as those in the reactants.
Z1 UA1 + Z2VA2  Z3WA3 + Z4XA4 is a nuclear reaction then,
Z1 + Z2 = Z3 + Z4 and A1 + A2 = A3 + A4
• Emission of electromagnetic radiations and neutrinos do not affect the above
balance.
 NUCLEAR STABILITY & BINDING ENERGY
• The Sum of masses of proton and neutrons that comprises the nucleus exceeds
the mass of the atomic nucleus. This difference in mass is called mass defect (∆m).
∆m = Nn mn + (mp + me)Z – ZmA
• The mass defect is converted into energy in nuclear reaction by Einstein Equation
∆E = ∆m. C2
• Energy equivalent of 1 amu mass is ∆E = 931 MeV
• For most medium and heavy nuclei, binding energy per nucleon falls between 7.5 to 8.7
MeV, minimum excitation required to emit a neutron.

Where, An atomic mass unit (symbolized AMU or amu) 

is defined as precisely 1/12 the mass of an atom of 
1 amu = 1.6605 x 10-27 Kg carbon-12. The carbon-12 (C-12) atom has six protons 
mn = 1.008665 amu = 1.674 x 10-27 kg and six neutrons in its nucleus. In imprecise terms, one
AMU is the average of the proton rest mass and the 
mp = 1.007277 amu = 1.673 x 10-27 kg neutron rest mass.
me = 0.0005486 amu = 9.109 x 10-31 kg
Selection of site for Nuclear power plant
• Availability of Water: Water is required for cooling purposes, ample quantity
of water should be available near plant.
• Distance from Populated area: danger of radioactivity in the vicinity of the
plant. Plant should be as far as possible from thickly populated areas. A
dome is used in the plant which does not allow radioactivity to spread.
• Disposal of Waste: Waste of a nuclear reactor is radioactive which must be
disposed off properly to avoid hazards. Waste either buried in a trench or
disposed off in deep sea.
• Nearness to Load center: Transmission cost is increased with the increase of
distance from the load center.
• Transportation facilities: little fuel quantity, does not require direct rail
transport but required during construction phase.
SCHEMATIC
ARRANGEMENT OF
NUCLEAR POWER
STATION
 NUCLEAR REACTOR
• It is an apparatus in which nuclear fuel U235 is subjected to nuclear fission reaction.
• It controls the chain reaction once the fission is done.
• If the chain reaction is not controlled, it may result in explosion due to fast increase in energy
released
• Nuclear reactor is a cylindrical stout pressure vessel and houses fuel rods of Uranium,
moderator and control rods.
• Fuel rods constitutes the fission material release huge amount of energy when bombarded by
slow moving neutrons.
• The moderator consists of graphite rods which encloses the fuel rods, its function is to slow
down the neutrons before they bombard the fuel rods.
• The control Rods are made of Cadmium and are inserted into the reactor. Cadmium is a strong
neutron absorber and these rod regulate the supply of neutrons for fission
• When the cadmium control rods are pushed in deep enough, they absorb most of the fission
neutrons only a few left for chain reaction, hence the chain reaction stops.
Fuel:
• Commonly used fuels are 92U235, 94Pu239 and 92U233
• 92U235 is naturally available in the nature up to 0.7% in uranium ore and
remaining is 92U238.
• The other two fuels 92U233, and 90Th232 are formed in the nuclear reactor due to the
absorption of neutrons without fission.
• Requirement of Fuel elements:
 It must be very strong under adverse conditions of Temperature, external loading etc.
 Must have good heat transfer properties
 It must resist corrosion caused by coolant, neighboring materials etc.
 Should possess good nuclear properties i.e. it should not capture neutrons.
 Under operating conditions it must be stable
 It must be capable of being easily fabricated and installed
Reactor Core:
• It contains a number of fuel rods made of fissile material
• They may be diluted with non-fissile material for better control of the
reaction or to reduce the damage from fission product poisoning.
• Size of core just sufficient to maintain a chain reaction is the critical size.
Moderator:
• Neutrons produced by fission process ejected from nucleus at very high speed 1.5 x 107 m/s having high
KE and are called fast neutrons
• Moderators are used to moderate the speed of neutrons in the reactor core
• Moderator can be defined as “A material having low atomic number and small neutron absorption cross-
section which slows down the fast neutrons by elastic collision”
• There are three types of neutron cross-sections:
1. Absorption (σa) : probability of absorbing neutron
2. Scattering (σs) : probability of deflection of neutrons from their original direction
3. Fission (σf) : Probability of producing fission
 Nuclear cross-section is given by the sum: σ = σa + σs + σf
 Moderator (continued..)
• Nuclear cross-section is also given by : σ = A/nN ; where,
• “A” is the number of Nuclei actually struck by neutrons,
• “n” is number of neutrons entering per cm2 of material and
• “N” is total number of nuclei or atoms per cm2
Unit of (σ ) cross-section is barn, 1 barn = 1x 10-24 cm2

• Fast neutrons collide with the nuclei of moderator material, loose their energy and momentum and get slowed down.
• Moderators materials are small molecular weight elements (H, He, Li, Be, C, N etc.) as we want neutron to loose its
max. energy after collision with comparable weight moderator nuclei.
• Good moderator should have High scattering cross-section (σs)
• Good moderator should have low absorption cross-section (σa)
• Slowing down property of moderator is represented by a factor (Ʈ):
“Ʈ” can be defined as “ Average logarithmic Energy Decrement/ loss per collision” and it only depends on Atomic
mass “A” of the target nucleus
• Common moderators includes graphite and D2O Ʈ = 1 – (A-1)2 Ln A+1
2A A -1
Equation for the number of Neutron Collision (N)
• By definition “Ʈ” is Average logarithmic Energy Decrement/ loss per collision
• If E0 and E are initial and final energies before and after collision then:
• Fractional energy loss in 1 collision is (E0 – E) /E =δE/E = - Ʈ
• For δN collisions , δE/E = - Ʈ δN integrate b .s.
• Ln E = - ƮN + A ( integration constant)
• When nuclear fission takes place, Ʈ = 0 => A = Ln E0
• Ln E = - ƮN + Ln E0 N = Ln (E0/E)
• Number of collisions are given by : Ʈ

Q)) A moderator of C12 slows down a neutron from 2Mev to 0.025ev, Ʈ for carbon is
0.158 . Find the number of collisions
Number of Neutron Collision (N)
THERMAL NEUTRONS
• When neutrons are slowed down by the moderator medium, the
lowest energies they can attain are those that put them in thermal
equilibrium with the molecules of the moderator medium.
• At a certain temperature, the most probable velocity of a neutron is:
Vm = (2KT/mn) ½ where K = 1.38x10-23 J/molecule K
mn = 1.674x 10-27 kg
Vm = 128.4T ½
• The most probable Kinetic energy of a neutron will be:
K.E = ½ mn Vm2 (Joules) or K.E = 8.613x10-5 T (eV)

• At 20 oC , K.E = 0.02524 eV and Vm = 2200 m/s

• Neutrons having higher energies than thermal are called epithermal neutrons.
SHIELDING:
• Shielding helps to give protection from deadly α- and β-particle radiations, ϒ-rays and
neutrons given off by the fission within the reactor.
• Shielding system prevent the environment / surroundings by absorbing the radiations
before their reach to surrounding.
CONTROL RODS:
• Nuclear fission is a chain reaction which if uncontrolled become a divergent reaction
convert to an atomic bomb.
• Control rods are used to control the fission reaction rate by using a neutron absorbing
material inserted into the reactor core from the top of the reactor vessel.
• Movement of these rods will allow the neutrons being captured by these rods and thus
regulate the fission process.
• Common materials for Control Rods are Cadmium , Boron, Hafnium
Control Rods should have following properties:

• Must have large cross-sectional area for absorption

• Must be stable and strong under heat and radiation
• Must have high absorption capacity for neutrons
• Must be able to shutdown reactor under emergency conditions
• Must have reasonable heat transfer properties
• Must provide good resistance to corrosion
• Must be economical.
COOLANT:
• A coolant transfers heat produced inside the reactor to a heat exchanger for further utilization in power
generation.
• When water is used as coolant, it takes up heat and get converted into steam in the reactor which is directly
used in the turbine.
• It helps in keeping interior of the reactor at desired temperature.
• Coolant flows through and around the reactor core.
• Most common coolants are: hydrogen, helium, steam, sodium, lithium, mercury, lead etc
REFLECTOR:
• In order to avoid leakage of neutrons from the reactor, it is essential to surround reactor with
reflectors.
• It helps to bounce escaping neutrons back into the reactor core.
• Reflector must have low probability of neutron capture, so reflector must meet same
requirements as that of moderators.
• Materials used as moderators can also be used as reflectors.
• Reflectors get heated due to collision of leakage neutrons so some cooling mechanism is
required in reflector.
REACTOR VESSEL:
• Reactor core, reflector and shield are all enclosed in a main body of the reactor and is called
reactor vessel or tank.
• It provides passage for the entry and exit passages for directing the flow of coolant
• Its has holes at the top to allow control rods to pass through
• Reactor vessel has to withstand up to 20MPa pressure
HEAT EXCHANGER:

• The coolant gives up heat to the heat exchanger which is used in raising
steam. After giving up heat coolant is again fed to the reactor.
STEAM TURBINE:
• Steam produced in heat exchanger is led to steam turbine through a valve
• After doing useful work in the turbine, steam get exhausted to the
condenser.
• Condenser converts the steam into water which is again fed to heat
exchanger through feed water pump.
ALTERNATOR:
• Steam turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
Disintegration theory:
• According to Rutherford, Radioactive elements undergo spontaneous transformation
from one chemical atom to another and radioactive particles are emitted in this
process.
• Very heavy elements are all radioactive and their atoms are unstable.
• This instability lies in their nucleus which breaks with emission of:
1) α- particles (4He2) 2) β-Particles (electron) 3) β+-Particles (positron)
• Process of disintegration is therefore not spontaneous but takes place in a series of
successive ejections.
• The Nature of ejected particle depends upon the particular disintegration series.
• A partial chain of such transformation can be shown as:

α α α β
Radium  Radon  Polonium  Lead  Bismuth
DIS-INTEGRATION PROCESS:

1. α- particles Emission (4He2)

• When a helium atom is emitted , atomic weight of the resulting nuclei decreased by 4 units
and nuclear charge by 2 units,
Pa = Protactinium
• In fact, 2 neutrons and 2 protons are lost by the nucleus. Ac = Actinium
• The new element produced due to dis-integration is called Daughter element Ra = Radium
Rn = Radon
4
He2 4
He2 4
He2
Th = Thorium
 234U92  230
Th90  Ra88 
226 222
Rn86 U = Uranium

2. β-Particles Emission (e- electron)

• When electron leaves a nucleus, there is no change in atomic weight , but charge is increased
to +1
• It means, one neutron is converted into proton in the nucleus.
• New element formed will have 1)
same atomic
β weight but
β its atomic number increased by one
unit. 234 234
Th90  234
Pa91  U92
2) β β
228
Ra  228
Ac  Th
228
DIS-INTEGRATION PROCESS: (Contd…)
3. β+ -Particles Emission (e+ positron)
It also occurs when there is an excess of protons in the nucleus.
Two photons arise from the destruction of each positron
RATE OF DISINTEGRATION:
• Rate of disintegration/ Radioactive decay or Activity (A) at any instant is
proportional to the number of atom present (N) at that instant time (t) and is quite
independent of the external physical conditions. It is measured in unit (dis/s)

- dN/dt α N or - dN/dt = A = λ N where λ is decay constant

- dN/N = λ dt integrate both side
ln(N) = - λt + c where c is integration constant

if N = No at t = 0, then c = Ln No
Ln N = - λt + Ln No N = No e - λt
Ln N/ No = - λt
HALF LIFE:

• The Time required for the disintegration of half the number of the atoms from initial
Quantity No at any time instant t = 0 is called Half life
• Half life is denoted by t1/2
• The number of atoms disintegrated or remain un-disintegrated = N = No /2
• Half life is the characteristics of every radioactive element. Ln ( N/ No ) = - λt
MEAN OR AVERAGE LIFE: Ln (2) = λ t1/2
• In a radioactive substance, some atoms decay earlier and other survive longer.
• An Average of lives of all atoms present at any given time is called Average life

Mean or Average life (λ’) = Total life time t1/2 = 0.693

Total # of atoms λ
λ’ = 1/ λ = t1/2 / 0.693
λ’ = 1.443 t1/2
HALF LIFE:
NUCLEAR FISSION:
• When Uranium is bombarded with slow neutrons, radioisotopes of Barium, Lanthanum,
Strontium etc. are formed
• Uranium nucleus after capturing neutron becomes unstable and splits up into two
fragments/nuclides of comparable masses.
• The process of splitting up of nucleus of Heavy atoms into two nuclei of comparable masses
with the release of large amount of heat energy is called fission reaction.
• Fission of each 235U92 nuclei is accompanied by the release of 2 or 3 neutrons and under
suitable conditions these neutrons produce fission in other 2 or 3 235U92 nuclei and the
process is called Chain reaction.
• Propagation of the Chain reaction will release a tremendous amount of energy in a fraction
of second.
• Energy released during fission can be utilized constructively in atomic reactors and can be
utilized destructively in atomic bombs.
• 20,000,000 kCal of energy is given off by 1gm of 235U Fission equivalent to 5500 pounds of
coal combustion or explosion of 33 Tons of TNT or 100000 units of electricity
NUCLEAR FISSION:
U92 undergoes fission with a slow or thermal neutrons in the following manner:
235

Kr = Krypton
Ba = Barium
Sr = Strontium
Xe = Xenon
Rb = Rubidium
Different 235U92 atoms split or disintegrate into different manners for Example: Cs = Cesium
Br = Bromine
La = Lanthanum
More than 200 isotopes of 35 different Zn = Zinc
elements have been identified in Sm = Samarium
different fissions products Np = Neptunium
Pu = Plutonium

Natural Uranium is a mixture of two isotopes only 0.7% of 235

U with 99.3% of 238
U
U suffers nuclear fission to a small
238

extent with fast moving neutron and

the fission is more symmetrical
 NUCLEAR FUSION:
• The process of combining two lighter nuclei to give a heavier nucleus is called a fusion reaction.
• When two deuterium atoms (2H1) are allowed to combine by raising the temperature to several
million degrees, fusion takes place and helium 3He2 nuclide is formed with the release of about
3.25Me.V of energy
2
H1 + 2H1 --> 3He2 + 1n0 + 3.25MeV OR 2H1 + 2H1 --> 3H1 + 1H1 + Energy

• Total of the masses of 3He2 & 1n0 is less than that of the two 2H1 nuclides. The difference in mass is
converted into energy according to E= mc2
• Fusion between Deuterium and Tritium nuclide can be expressed as:
2
H1 + H1 --> He2 + n0 + 17.6MeV
3 4 1

• Nuclear Fission is employed to provide million degrees of temperature to initiate Fusion reaction,
hence fusion is also call Thermo-Nuclear Reaction.
• Hydrogen bomb is based on the principle of Fusion and it is much more powerful than atom bomb.
• Attempts are now under research to harness fusion energy for peaceful purposes.
• Millions of degrees temperature exists in the interior of stars like sun etc.
FUSION REACTION ON SUN
• The Energy from sun is supposed to arise from the following
thermonuclear reactions:

1
H1 + 1H1 --> 2H1 + e+ + Energy
2
H1 + 1H1 --> 3He2 + Energy
3
He2 + 3He2 --> 4He2 + 2 1H1 + Energy

Overall Reaction is
4 1H1 --> 4He2 + 2e+ + Energy (27.0 MeV)
REACTOR CONTROL
• In nuclear fission reaction, some neutrons are not used up in propagating chain reaction
but lost in surroundings.
• In order to maintain the chain reaction, it is therefore essential that the number of
neutrons after fission should be slightly greater than the number of neutrons before
fission in order to compensate neutron lost with chain reaction.
Reproduction factor , K = Number of neutrons produced in one generation__
Number of neutrons produced in the preceding generation

• If K = 1, chain reaction will continue with steady rate ( critical)

• If K > 1, chain reaction will be building up ( super critical)
• If K < 1 , chain reaction will be dying down ( sub critical)
• At the time of starting up of reactor kept K >1, once the required power level is attained,
K is reduced to Unity, K=1, For shutting down the reactor, K has to be reduced to less
than 1, K <1 and chain reaction will die down.
 NUCLEAR REACTOR
CLASSIFICATION
• On the basis of fuel used • On the basis of state of fuel
1. Natural Uranium 1. Solid Fuel Reactors
2. Enriched Uranium 2. Liquid Fuel Reactors
• On the basis of coolant used
3. Plutonium
1. Gas cooled reactors
• On the basis of moderator used
2. Water cooled Reactors (ordinary or heavy
1. Graphite reactors water)
2. Beryllium reactors 3. Liquid metal cooled reactors
3. Water ( ordinary or heavy water) 4. Organic liquid cooled reactors
Reactors • On the basis of Fissile & fertile material
4. Organic reactors 1. One Region( fertile and fissile mixed)
• On the type of Fission 2. Two region ( fertile and fissile separate)
• On the basis of type of core used:
1. Thermal Reactors
1. Homogenous reactors
2. Fast reactors
2. Heterogeneous reactors
 Fertile Materials Fissile Materials
• Fertile material is a material that, although not itself • fissile material is material capable 
fissionable by thermal neutrons, can be converted into of sustaining a nuclear fission 
a fissile material by neutron absorption and chain reaction. 
subsequent nuclei conversions.
• By definition, fissile material can 
• Naturally occurring fertile materials that can be
converted into a fissile material by irradiation in a
sustain a chain reaction with 
reactor include: neutrons of any energy. 
• thorium-232 which converts into uranium-233 • The predominant neutron energy 
may be typified by either 
• uranium-234 which converts into uranium-235
slow neutrons (i.e., a thermal 
• uranium-238 which converts into plutonium-239
system) or fast neutrons. 
• Artificial isotopes formed in the reactor which can be • Fissile material can be used to fuel 
converted into fissile material by one neutron capture
include: thermal-neutron  reactors, 
fast-neutron reactors and 
• plutonium-238 which converts into plutonium-239
nuclear explosives.
• plutonium-240 which converts into plutonium-241
NUCLEAR REACTOR CLASSIFICATION
• On the basis of Cooling System
1. Direct Reactors
• In direct system of cooling the fuel is in the liquid
form and it acts as a coolant.
• Fuel is circulated throughout the reactor core and
the heat exchanger in which its heat is transferred
to the circulating water to produce steam.

1. Indirect Reactors
• In Indirect system of cooling, the coolant may be a
gas, water , a liquid metal or an organic coolant.
• In this system coolant is pumped through pipes via
centrifugal pump.
Difference Between:
Fast Reactors Thermal Reactors
• Fission is caused by fast neutrons • Fission is caused by slow neutrons

• High fuel loading requirements • Low fuel loading requirements

• Small and compact in size • Size and weight of reactor per unit power are higher
• Net fuel consumption is less • More fissile material is consumed
• Heat transfer and cooling problems in the core are • Ease of control because of low power densities.
complicated due to high power density

Homogenous Reactors Heterogeneous reactors

• Fuel form an aqueous solution with liquid moderator or a • Separate fuel rods are inserted in the
uniform mixture if the moderator used is solid moderator in some sort of regular
arrangements called lattice.
ADVANTAGES: DIS-ADVANTAGES:
Reactor is self controlled not requiring any control rods Requiring control rods
Excellent heat transfer properties because of generation of Heat transfer is relatively low
fission energy in the fuel-coolant solution itself.
The reactor fuel can be added , removed and reprocessed during Reactor need shutdown in order to add, or
reactor operation without shutting it down. remove fuel.
BOILING WATER REACTOR
(BWR)

• A BWR utilizes water as its coolant

• Water used in BWR act both as moderator as well as coolant.
• The steam is directly generated in the reactor.
• Feed water enters the reactor vessel at the bottom and takes the heat produced by fission
reaction of the radioactive fuel and gets converted into steam.
• Steam leaves the reactor from the top and flows into the turbine.
• Fuel used in the reactor is Uranium oxide with additional U235 content canned in Zirconium
alloy.
• It’s a dual purpose reactor, designed for producing both power and weapon material.
 BOILING WATER REACTOR
(BWR)

• Advantages
1. BWR is more stable than PWR.
2. It eliminates the use of highly pressurized pumps and heat exchangers
3. As a result, there is reduction in cost and gain in thermal efficiency
4. BWR is more efficient than PWR ( pressurized water reactors)
• Disadvantages
1. There is a possibility of radioactive contamination of steam in the turbine
mechanism
2. More elaborate safety measures are needed which results in increasing cost
of the reactor.
3. Wastage of steam result in lowering of thermal efficiency.
4. BWR works at a much higher pressure as compared to gas-cooled reactors.
5. It cannot meet a sudden increase in load.
 PRESSURIZED WATER REACTORS (PWR)

• In this type of reactor, water is used

as coolant but the pressure of the
water is increased sufficiently high
to suppress boiling.
• The water coolant is passed
through the heat exchanger or
boiler where it transfers its heat to
water forming steam.

• Fuel used in enriched Uranium clad with stainless steel or Zirconium alloy.
• Since water is passing through the reactor becomes radioactive, the entire primary circuit
including heat exchanger has to be shielded for safety.
ADVANTAGES:
• Compact in size
• Reactor has a high power density
• Cheap light water can be used as coolant, moderator as well as reflector.
• The reactor corresponds to supply more power when the load increases.
DISADVANTAGES:
• A strong pressure vessel is required due to high pressure water system.
• There are high heat losses due to heat exchanger
• Expensive cladding material is required to prevent corrosion
• There is high power consumption by auxiliaries
• Thermal efficiency of PWR is as low as 20%
 GAS COOLED REACTORS:
• A gas cooled reactor uses a gas (CO2 or
Helium) as coolant instead of water.
• It uses a lattice of graphite in the form of
blocks as moderator for slowing down the fast
neutron.
• The reactor is intended to work at high
temperatures.
• It is necessary to protect graphite from contact
with coolant either by canning the graphite or
by piping the coolant through the reactor in
metal tube.
• A large quantity of gas required due to poor
heat transfer qualities of gas for circulation
result in increased power consumption for
auxiliaries..
• It results in lowering of overall efficiency
 GAS COOLED REACTORS:
Advantages:
• Less serious corrosion problems
• Greater safety in comparison with water cooled reactor
• Contamination problems are less
• There is a possibility of use of natural uranium as a fuel.
Disadvantages:
• The size of reactor is large as compared to other
reactors
• The reactor is required to be shutdown for change of
fuel
• Extremely low pressure density
• Overall plant efficiency is low.
CANDU TYPE REACTOR (HEAVY WATER COOLED & MODERATED)
• CANDU stands for: Canadian Deuterium
Uranium, first developed by Canada
• This reactor uses natural Uranium as fuel and
heavy water as moderator.
• Such reactors are meant for those countries
which do not produced enriched Uranium.
• Primary and secondary circuits are similar to
PWR.
• Coolant heavy water is circulated in the
primary circuit and steam is produced in the
secondary circuit transferring the heat in the
heat exchanger.
• There are no control rods in this reactor and
reactor control is achieved by varying the
moderator level in the reactor.
CANDU TYPE REACTOR (HEAVY WATER COOLED & MODERATED)
Advantages:
• Enriched Uranium is not required
• This reactor has low fuel consumption
• Simpler reactor control because of
absence of control rods.
• This reactor is more effective in slowing
down neutrons
Disadvantages:
• Heavy water used as moderator is of
high cost
• This reactor requires high design
standards
 LIQUID METAL COOLED REACTOR
• This reactor utilizes high coolant temperatures
without applying high pressures and at the same
time can have a high rate of heat transfer between
coolant and water in the heat exchanger.
• Metals in liquid state have good thermal
conductivity and high temperatures can be attained
at moderate pressures.

• In Sodium Graphite reactor, slightly enriched Uranium alloy or Uranium carbide clad with
stainless steel is used as fuel, graphite is used as moderator and liquid sodium is used as
coolant.
• Two heat transfer circuits are employed so that radioactive Sodium does not come in
contact with steam circuit.
• Sodium is circulated through the reactor core and an intermediate heat exchanger where
heat of Sodium is transferred to NaK liquid metal which gives up heat in the heat exchanger
to generate steam.
LIQUID METAL COOLED REACTOR (Sodium Graphite reactor)

Advantages:
• Reduced corrosion problems
• Steam generation at high temperature and
pressure
Disadvantages:
• Enriched fuel is required
• High initial cost of Heat Exchanger
• There is a risk of leak between sodium and
water circuits resulting in violent reaction, so
whole system should be leak tight.
• Require triple cycle cooling system with dual
heat exchangers to minimize hazards.
 LIQUID METAL FAST BREEDER
REACTOR
• Fast breeder reactor consist of a small vessel in
which necessary quantity of enriched Uranium or
Plutonium is kept without a moderator.
• It consists of a stainless steel pot into which fissile
material is placed surrounded by a blanket of fertile
material.
• Graphite containing Boron is used as a shield for
absorbing electrons.
• Function of graphite is to slow down the fast
neutron while Boron has property of absorbing it.
• Pots along with the shield are supported on the
steel structure over a concrete base.
• Liquid Sodium/ Potassium is used as coolant for
both primary and secondary heat exchanger.
• The whole reactor is placed in steel sphere of about
47cm diameter.
Loop type, In which the primary coolant is circulated through primary heat exchangers outside the reactor tank (but
inside the biological shield due to radioactive sodium-24 in the primary coolant)
Pool type, In which the primary heat exchangers and pumps are immersed in the reactor tank
LIQUID METAL FAST BREEDER
REACTOR
Advantages:
• More efficient use of Uranium is made as compared to other
reactors.
• It might be possible to produce Pu239 from natural Uranium.
• These reactors are characterized by small volumes and
compactness.
Disadvantages:
• Large amount of enriched fuel is required which is quite
expensive.
• There is high specific power in small volumes which makes heat
removal difficult.
• They are more sensitive to changes in dimension and geometry
as compared to other reactors.
Q. Calculate Mass defect and binding energy per nucleon of
Oxygen atom.
Atomic mass of oxygen = 15.99491 amu
mp = 1.007277 amu , mn 1.008665 amu, me = 0.00055 amu

∆m = Nn mn + (mp + me)Z – ZmA

Q2. The half life of radium 226 ( atomic mass is 226.095 amu) is
1620yrs.
Compute a) decay constant b) initial activity of 1 g of radium 226
t1/2 = 0.693 , activity = λN
λ
Q3. Each fission of U-235 yields 190MeV of useful energy. Assuming that
85% of neutrons absorbed by U-235 cause fission, the rest being absorbed
by non-fission capture to produce an isotope U-236, estimate the fuel
consumption of U-235 per day to produce 3000MW of thermal power.
Q4. A newly born neutron of 4.8Me.V is to be slowed to 0.025eV in a
graphite moderator. Assuming all collisions to be elastic, calculate
the logarithmic energy decrement representing the neutron energy
loss per elastic collision and the number of collisions necessary.
Ʈ = 1 – (A-1)2 Ln A+1
2A A -1
Q5. An atomic power reactor can deliver 300MW. If due to fission of
each atom of U-235, the energy released is 200MeV. Calculate the
mass of Uranium fissioned per hour.
Q6. What is the power output of a U-235 reactor if it takes 30days to
use up 2 kg of fuel?. Given that energy released per fission is 200MeV
and Avogadro’s number = 6.023x 1023 per mole
Assignment # 3 ( NUCLEAR POWER)
• Search out 5 Numerical Problems on Nuclear Power Plant with similar
level as we did in class lectures from Library books/ Internet and
mention their complete source link / Book Reference.

• Every group should have different set of problems.

• Solve those Problems and submit their solution on individual basis.

SUBMISSION DATE: 18/12/2017