Basics of

Heat Transfer and Heat Exchanger

by,
Kumargaurao
ChED, UPES, Dehradun
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
 Heat Transfer
• Heat the form of energy
• Heat flow depends on the temperature difference.
• The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers called heat transfer.
• There are three modes of heat transfer:
 Conduction,
 Convection, and
 Radiation.
 Conduction
When you heat a metal strip at one end, the heat travels to
the other end.

As you heat the metal, the particles vibrate, these vibrations

make the adjacent particles vibrate, and so on and so on, the
vibrations are passed along the metal and so is the heat. We
call this? Conduction
 STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION IN PLANE WALLS
Heat transfer through the wall of a house can be modeled as steady and one-dimensional.
The temperature of the wall in this case depends on one direction only (say the x-direction)
and can be expressed as T(x).

for steady operation

In steady operation, the rate of heat transfer through the wall

is constant.
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
 Contd…

The rate of heat conduction through a plane wall

is proportional to the average thermal
conductivity, the wall area, and the temperature
difference, but is inversely proportional to the wall
thickness.
Once the rate of heat conduction is available, the
temperature T(x) at any location x can be
determined by replacing T2 by T, and L by x.
Under steady conditions, the
temperature distribution in a plane
wall is a straight line: dT/dx = const.
Energy Conservation Equation

   dEst 
Ein  Eout  E g   Est
dt
 Heat Conduction through a Material

Heat Conduction Equation

Thermal conductivity Area of cross section (m2)
(W/moC)
Heat flow Qcond = k A (T2 -T1)
(W)
L
Temperature
difference (oC)
Length (m)
 Thermal Conductivity

 Thermal conductivity k (units W/m.K), a transport property of a material,

describes how well the material conducts heat.

 Thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat

transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.
 Thermal Diffusivity

• The product Cp, which is frequently encountered in heat

transfer analysis, is called the heat capacity of a material.
• Both the specific heat Cp and the heat capacity Cp represent
the heat storage capability of a material.
• But Cp expresses it per unit mass whereas Cp expresses it per
unit volume, as can be noticed from their units J/kg·°C and
J/m3·°C, respectively.
• Thermal diffusivity a is the ratio of the thermal conductivity to
the heat capacity:

Heat conducted k
a  (m2/s)
Heat stored c p
Thermal Resistance Concept

Conduction resistance of the wall:

Thermal resistance of the wall
against heat conduction.
Thermal resistance of a medium Analogy between thermal and electrical
depends on the geometry and the resistance concepts.
thermal properties of the medium.
rate of heat transfer  electric current
thermal resistance  electrical resistance
Electrical resistance temperature difference  voltage difference
 Contd…
Newton’s law of cooling

Convection resistance of the surface:

Thermal resistance of the surface
against heat convection.

Schematic for convection resistance at a surface.

When the convection heat transfer coefficient is very large (h → ), the convection
resistance becomes zero and Ts  T.
That is, the surface offers no resistance to convection, and thus it does not slow down
the heat transfer process.
This situation is approached in practice at surfaces where boiling and condensation
occur.
 Thermal Resistance Network

The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a plane wall subjected to
convection on both sides, and the electrical analogy.

13
 Contd…
Temperature drop

U overall heat transfer

coefficient

Once Q is evaluated, the surface

temperature T1 can be determined
from

The temperature drop across a layer is proportional

to its thermal resistance.
 CRITICAL RADIUS OF
INSULATION

 T1  T T1  T
Q 
CYLINDER Rins  Rconv ln( r2 / r1 ) 1

2Lk h(2r2 L)
As r2↑ thickness of wall ↑ heat resistance in the wall ↑ => Q ↓
However,

as r2 ↑ A0 ↑convection heat transfer resistance of surface↓ => Q ↑

 Contd….
The heat transfer from the pipe may increase or decrease,
depending on which effect dominates.
The variation of Q with the outer radius of the insulation r2 is plotted:

The value of r2 at which Q reaches

a maximum is determined from the
requirement that


d Q/ dr2  0

Adapted from Heat and Mass Transfer – A Practical

Approach, Y.A. Cengel, Third Edition, McGraw Hill
2007.
 Contd….
Critical radius of insulation for cylinder

k Thermal conductivity
rcr ,cylinder  External convection heat
h transfer coefficient

Critical radius of insulation for sphere

2k
rcr , sphere 
h
 Contd….

CHOSING INSULATION THICKNESS

r2  rcr
r2  rcr Qmax

r2  rcr

Before insulation check for critical radius

Contd….
 Contd….
Optimum thickness of insulation
Why Fins are needed?

• Temperature gradient dT/dx,

• Surface temperature, T,
• Are expressed such that T is a function of x only.

• Newton’s law of cooling

Qconv  hAs Ts  T 

• Two ways to increase the rate of heat transfer:

– increasing the heat transfer coefficient,
– increase the surface area fins
 Contd….
Solutions of Differential Equation

qf  hPkAc (Tb  T )
 Fin Performance Fin Efficiency
• To maximize the heat transfer from a fin the temperature
of the fin should be uniform (maximized) at the base value
of Tb
• In reality, the temperature drops along the fin, and thus
the heat transfer from the fin is less
• To account for the effect we define
a fin efficiency

Q fin Actual heat transfer rate from the fin

 fin  
Q fin,max Ideal heat transfer rate from the fin
if the entire fin were at base temperature
or
Qfin   finQfin,max   fin hAfin (Tb  T )
 Fin Effectiveness
• The performance of the fins is judged on the basis of the
enhancement in heat transfer relative to the no-fin case.
• The performance of fins is expressed
in terms of the fin effectiveness efin
defined as Heat transfer rate
from the fin of base
Q fin Q fin area Ab
e fin   
Qno fin hAb Tb  T  Heat transfer rate
from the surface
of area Ab

e f  with  h,  k and  Ac / P
 Convection
Cools at the Convection
surface
current

Cooler Hot water

water sinks rises

Water
movement
Why is it windy at the seaside?
CONVECTION

Mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of

bulk fluid motion

Natural (free) Convection

Forced Convection

(depending on how the fluid motion is initiated)

 Heat Convection Equation

Newton’s Law of Cooling

Heat transfer coefficient Area contacting fluids (m2)

(watts/m2oC)

Heat flow
(watts)
Qconv = h A (T2 -T1)

Temperature
difference (oC)
 Forced Convection

REYNOLDS NUMBER
Ratio of the inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid

Depends on:
 Flow Regime
m D  m D
 Geometry Re  
v 
 Surface roughness
 Flow velocity
m Mean flow velocity
 Surface temperature
D Characteristic length of
 Type of fluid the geometry
v/ Kinematic viscosity
 Forced Convection

• Critical Reynolds number (Recr) for flow in a round pipe

Re < 2300  laminar
2300 ≤ Re ≤ 4000  transitional
Re > 4000  turbulent

• Note that these values are approximate.

• For a given application, Recr depends upon

– Pipe roughness
– Vibrations
– Upstream fluctuations, disturbances (valves, elbows, etc.
that may disturb the flow)
 Forced Convection

HYDRAULIC DIAMETER

• For non-round pipes,

• The hydraulic diameter

•
Dh = 4Ac/P

Ac = cross-section area
P = wetted perimeter
 Forced Convection
The Nusselt Number

• It is common practice to nondimensionalize the convective

heat transfer coefficient h with the Nusselt number

Heat flux through the fluid layer by convection and by

conduction can be expressed as, respectively:
 Forced Convection

Taking their ratio gives

The Nusselt number represents the enhancement of heat

transfer through a fluid layer as a result of convection relative
to conduction across the same fluid Layer.
 Forced/Natural Convection
Prandtl Number

• The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary

layers is best described by the dimensionless parameter Prandtl
number, defined as

• Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid metals (Pr«1) and very slowly
in oils (Pr»1) relative to momentum.

• Consequently the thermal boundary layer is much thicker for

liquid metals and much thinner for oils relative to the velocity
boundary layer.
 Forced Convection
Correlations for Convective Heat Transfer - Turbulent

Applicable for N Re  6000, 0.7  N Pr  16, 000, L / D  60 and   1 cp

0.14
hL D 0.8 1/ 3  b 
N Nu   0.027 N Re N Pr  
k 
 w
All properties are evaluated at the average fluid temperature.
Applicable for 10, 000  N Re ; 0.7  N Pr  16, 700; L / D  10
If   1 cp (gases and some liquids) then a simpler equation derived by
Dittus and Boelter can be used:
hL D
N Nu   0.023N Re
0.8
N Prn
k
Applicable for N Re  10, 000; 0.7  N Pr  160; L / D  10
where n  0.4 for fluids being heated
n  0.3 for fluids being cooled
 Natural Convection

Grashof Number

g (Ts  T ) L  u0 L  g (Ts  T ) L3
2

GrL    
u02
    2

•Grashof number in natural convection is analogous to the Reynolds

number in forced convection.
•Grashof number indicates the ratio of the buoyancy force to the viscous
force.
•Higher Gr number means increased natural convection flow

GrL GrL
2
 1 forced  1 natural
Re L 2
Re L
 Natural Convection

Rayleigh Number
Typical correlations for heat transfer coefficient developed from
experimental data are expressed as:
hL
NuL   CRa Ln
k

g Ts  T  L3
Ra L  GrL  Pr 
a

n  1 / 4 For Turbulent

 n  1 / 3 For Laminar
 Heat Transfer Coefficient

• h is not a constant, but h = h(DT).

• Three types of convection.
• Natural convection. Fluid moves due to
buoyancy. Typical values of h:
Thot Tcold 4 - 4,000 W/m2-K
h  DT x 1
4
x 1
3

• Forced convection: flow is induced by

external means. Tcold
80 - 75,000
Thot
h  const
• Boiling convection: body is hot enough to
boil liquid. Tcold 300 - 900,000
Thot
h  DT 2
 Radiant Heat
• The total power emitted as thermal radiation by a
blackbody depends on temperature (T) and
surface area (A).

• Real surfaces usually emit less than the blackbody

power, typically between 10 and 90 percent.

• The Kelvin temperature scale is used in the Stefan-

Boltzmann formula because thermal radiation
depends on the temperature above absolute zero.
 Stefan-Boltzmann formula

Surface area (m2)

Power
(watts)
Q = s AT4

Absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (K)
5.67 x 10-8 watts/m2K4)
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Ionizing Radiation Visible Nonionizing Radiation

Infrared
Ultraviolet Near Far Radar
X Rays
FM
Gamma Rays TV
Short wave
Cosmic Rays Broadcast Power
Transmission

10 -14 10 -12 10 -10 10 -8 10 -6 10 -4 10 -2 1 10 2 10 4 10 6 10 8

Wavelength in Meters

10 10 10 8 10 6 10 4 10 2 1 10 -2 10 -4 10 -6 10 -8 10 -10 10 -12 10 -14

High Energy - Electron Volts Low

 Absorption, Reflection and Transmission

Radiation flux incident on a surface is

called irradiation and is denoted by G.

When radiation strikes a surface, part of it

is absorbed, part of it is reflected, and the
remaining part, if any, is transmitted, as
illustrated in Fig.4.

• The fraction of irradiation absorbed by

the surface is called the absorptivity a.

Fig.4
• The fraction reflected by the surface is
called the reflectivity .

• The fraction transmitted is called the

transmissivity .
 Absorbed radiation Gabs
Absorptivity: ,a ,0  a 1
Incident radiation G

Reflected radiation Gref

Reflectivity: , ,0   1
Incident radiation G

Transmitted radiation Gtra

Transmissivity: , ,0  1
Incident radiation G
The first law of thermodynamics requires that the sum of the
absorbed, reflected, and transmitted radiation energy be equal to the
incident radiation.

Gabs  Gref  Gtra  G

Dividing each term by G yields,
a     1
 Radiation as such is not heat and when transformed to heat on
absorption, it is no longer radiation.
 A body that absorbs all incident radiation is called black body.

a  1,   0,   0
 A transparent body is one which transmits part of radiation falling on
its surface. If it does not transmit any radiation at all it is called as
opaque body.
  0, a    1
 A body which reflects all incident radiation falling on its surface and
does not absorb or transmit any part of it is called as white body.

  0, a  0,   1
 If the absorptivity of a surface does not vary with temperature and
wavelength of the incident radiation, it is termed as gray body.

a  (a )  Constant
 If the absorptivity of a surface varies with wavelength of the incident
radiation, it is termed as coloured body.
 Emissivity

The ratio of the total emissive power E of a body to that of a blackbody

Eb is defined as emissivity e of the body.

E
e
Eb

Monochromatic emissivity: It is the ratio of the monochromatic emissive

power E of a body to that of a blackbody at the same wavelength.

E
e 
Eb 

For gray body e = constant for all values of .

Emissivity of solids usually increases with temperature.
 The View Factor
Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the orientation of
the surfaces relative to each other as well as their radiation properties
and temperatures.

To account for the effects of orientation on radiation heat transfer

between two surfaces, we define a new parameter called the view
factor, which is a purely geometric quantity and is independent of the
surface properties and temperature. It is also called the shape factor,
configuration factor, and angle factor.

Fij = the fraction of the radiation leaving

surface i that strikes surface j directly

Net radiation transfer from surface i due to

exchange with all (N) surfaces of an enclosure:

qi   Ai Fijs Ti 4  T j4 
N

j 1
 Radiation Shields
• High reflectivity (lowa  e) surface(s) inserted between two surfaces for which
a reduction in radiation exchange is desired.

• Consider use of a single shield in a two-surface enclosure, such as that associated with
large parallel plates:

Note that, although rarely the case, emissivities may differ for opposite surfaces
of the shield.
Radiation Shield (cont)

• Radiation Network:

s T14  T24 
q12  q1  q2 
1  e1 1  e 3,1 1  e 3,2 1 e 2
 1    1 
e1 A1 A1F13 e 3,1 A3 e 3,2 A3 A3 F32 e 2 A2

• The foregoing result may be readily extended to account for multiple shields
and may be applied to long, concentric cylinders and concentric spheres,
as well as large parallel plates.
• When comparing heat
transfer for a pot 10 cm
above a heating element
on a stove, radiant heat
accounts for 74%

• How is heat transferred

when the pot sits on the
element?
 Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers
• The simplest type of heat exchanger is called
the double-pipe heat exchanger.
• One fluid flows through the smaller pipe while
the other fluid flows through the annular
space between the
two pipes.
• Two types of flow
arrangement
– parallel flow,
– counter flow.
 Compact Heat Exchanger
• Large heat transfer surface area per unit volume.
• Area density  ─ heat transfer surface of a heat
exchanger to volume ratio.
• Compact heat exchanger  >700 m2/m3.
• Examples:
– car radiators ( ≈1000 m2/m3),
– glass-ceramic gas turbine heat
exchangers ( ≈6000 m2/m3),
– the regenerator of a Stirling
engine ( ≈15,000 m2/m3), and
– the human lung ( ≈20,000 m2/m3).
 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
• The most common type of heat exchanger in industrial
applications.
• Large number of tubes are packed in a shell with their axes
parallel to that of the shell.
• The other fluid flows outside the tubes through the shell.
• Baffles are commonly placed in the shell.
• Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are relatively large size and
weight.
• Shell-and-tube heat
exchangers are further
classified according to
the number of shell and
tube passes involved.
 Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger
• Consists of a series of plates with corrugated flat flow
passages.
• The hot and cold fluids flow in alternate passages
• Well suited for liquid-to-liquid heat exchange
applications, provided that
the hot and cold fluid
streams are at about the
same pressure.
 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• A heat exchanger typically involves two flowing fluids
separated by a solid wall.
• Heat is transferred
– from the hot fluid to the wall by
convection,
– through the wall by conduction, and
– from the wall to the cold fluid by
convection.
• The thermal resistance network
– two convection and
– one conduction resistances.
• For a double-pipe heat exchanger, the thermal
resistance of the tube wall is
ln  D0 Di 
Rwall 
2 kL
• The total thermal resistance
1 ln  D0 Di  1
Rtotal  Ri  Rwall  Ro   
hi Ai 2 kL ho Ao
• When one fluid flows inside a circular
tube and the other outside of it, we have

Ai   Di L ; Ao   Do L
• It is convenient to combine all the thermal
resistances in the path of heat flow from the
hot fluid to the cold one into a single
resistance R
DT
Q  UADT  U i Ai DT  U o Ao DT
R
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient,
whose unit is W/m2ºC.
• Canceling T, Eq. 11–3 reduces to
1 1 1 1 1
  R  Rwall 
UAs U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai ho Ao
• When the wall thickness of the tube is small
and the thermal conductivity of the tube
material is high (Rwall=0) and the inner and
outer surfaces of the tube are almost identical
(Ai≈Ao≈As), Eq. simplifies to
1 1 1
 
U hi ho
1 1
• When hi>>ho 
U ho
1 1
• When hi<<ho 
U hi
 Fouling Factor
• The performance of heat exchangers usually
deteriorates with time as a result of accumulation of
deposits on heat transfer surfaces.
• The layer of deposits represents additional resistance
to heat transfer and causes the rate of heat transfer in
a heat exchanger to decrease.
• The fouling factor Rf ─ The net effect of these
accumulations on heat transfer.
• Two common type of fouling:
– precipitation of solid deposits in a
fluid on the heat transfer surfaces.
– corrosion and other chemical fouling.
• The overall heat transfer coefficient needs to
be modified to account for the effects of
fouling on both the inner and the outer
surfaces of the tube.
• For an unfinned shell-and-tube heat exchanger,
it can be expressed as
1 R f ,i ln  D0 Di  R f ,o 1
R    
hi Ai Ai 2 kL Ao ho Ao
Rf,i and Rf,o are the fouling factors at those
surfaces.
DTlm: 1. Parallel-Flow Heat Exchangers
DT1 DT2 q  UA DTlm

DT2  DT1
DTlm 
Parallel Flow ln( DTCounterflow
2 / DT1 )

where
DT1  Th,i  Tc,i
DT2  Th,o  Tc,o
 DTlm: 2. Counter-Flow Heat Exchangers
DT1 DT2 q  UA DTlm

DT2  DT1
DTlm 
Counterflow ln( DT2 / DT1 )

where
DT1  Th,i  Tc,o
DT2  Th,o  Tc,i
DTlm: 3. Multipass and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers
To account for complex flow conditions in multipass,
shell and tube and cross-flow heat exchangers, the log-
mean temperature difference can be modified:

DTlm  FDTlm,CF

where F=correction factor

Correction Factor

where t is the tube-

side fluid
temperature
 The Effectiveness – NTU Method
• This method is based on a dimensionless parameter called the
heat transfer effectiveness e
Q Actual heat transfer rate
e 
Qmax Maximum possible heat transfer rate
• The actual heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger
Q  Cc Tc ,out  Tc ,in   Ch Th ,in  Th ,out 
• The maximum temperature difference
DTmax  Th ,in  Tc ,in
• The maximum possible heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger

Qmax  Cmin DTmax  Cmin Th ,in  Tc ,in 

• Maximum heat transfer:
Qmax  ( mc p )c (Th1  Tc1 ) if Cc  Ch
or
Qmax  ( mc p )h (Th1  Tc1 ) if Ch  Cc
• Therefore, HEX effectiveness can be written as

• The above equation is valid for all heat exchanger

flow arrangements. The value of e ranges between 0
and 1.
• For a given e and Qmax, the actual HT rate is
Q = e (mcp)min(Th1-Tc1)
• Effectiveness relations of the heat exchangers typically
involve a dimensionless group called the number of
transfer units NTU
UAs UAs
NTU= 
Cmin mc p min
• For specified values of U and Cmin, the value of NTU is a
measure of the heat transfer surface area As.
• The larger the NTU, the larger the heat exchanger.
• It is also convenient to define a capacity ratio c
C min
c=
C max
• The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is a function of
the number of transfer units NTU and the capacity
ratio c.
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
Kern’s Method to Calculate Heat Transfer Coefficient and Pressure Drop in Shell

Procedure:
1. Calculate the area for cross-flow As for the hypothetical row of tubes at the
shell equator, given by: ( p  d )D l
As  t 0 s B
pt
Where Pt = tube pitch in m,
do = tube outside diameter in m,
Ds = shell inside diameter in m,
lB = baffle spacing in m.
The term (Pt - do) / Pt is the ratio of the clearance between tubes and the total
distance between tube centers.

2. Calculate the shell-side mass velocity Gs and the linear velocity us:
ms Gs
Gs   us 
As 
Where = fluid flow-rate on the shell-side in kg/s,
ms= shell-side fluid density in kg/m3.

3. Calculate the shell-side equivalent diameter (hydraulic diameter).

For a square pitch arrangement:

pt2   d 02
4( )
4 1.27 2
de   ( pt  0.785d 02 )
 d0 d0

For an equilateral triangular pitch arrangement:

pt 1 d 02
4(  0.87 pt   )
de  2 2 4  1.10 ( p 2  0.917d 2 )
 d0 d0
t 0

2
Where de = equivalent diameter, m.

4. Calculate the shell-side Reynolds number, given by:

Gs de
Re 

Where μ, is viscosity of shell fluid at bulk temperature
5. For the calculated Reynolds number, read the value of jh from graph
for the selected baffle cut and tube arrangement, and calculate the
shell-side heat transfer coefficient hs from:

hs de 1/ 3  0.14
Nu   jh Re Prr ( )
kf w
Where μw, is viscosity of shell fluid at tube wall temperature

6. For the calculated shell-side Reynolds number, read the friction

factor from graph and calculate the shell-side pressure drop from:
0.14
D   L   us2   
DPs  8 j f  s    
 de  B 
l 2 
 w

Where L = tube length,

lB = baffle spacing.
The term (L / lB) is the number of times the flow crosses
the tube bundle = (Nb + 1), where Nb is the number of baffles.
Air is best heated with steam in a heat Q. 1
exchanger of

A. plate type.
B. double pipe type with fin on steam side.
C. double pipe type with fin on air side.
D. shell and tube type.

Q. 2
Fourier's law applies to the heat transfer by

A. convection
B. radiation
C. conduction
D. all (a), (b) & (c)
 In the equation Q = UAΔt; Δt is Q. 3

A. geometric mean temperature difference.

B. arithmetic mean temperature difference.
C. logarithmic mean temperature difference.
D. the difference of average bulk temperatures of hot and
cold fluids.

Q. 4
Fouling factor

A. is a dimensionless quantity.
B. does not provide a safety factor for design.
C. accounts for additional resistances to heat flow.
D. none of these.
 Q. 5
For shell and tube heat exchanger, with
increasing heat transfer area, the purchased
cost per unit heat transfer area

A. increases
B. decreases
C. remains constant
D. passes through a maxima

Q. 6
Hot water (0.01 m3 /min) enters the tube side of a counter current shell
and tube heat exchanger at 80°C and leaves at 50°C. Cold oil (0.05 m3/min)
of density 800 kg/m3 and specific heat of 2 kJ/kg.K enters at 20°C. The log
mean temperature difference in °C is approximately

A. 32 B. 37
C. 45 D. 50
 Q. 7
In a heat exchanger, floating head is provided to

A. facilitate cleaning of the exchanger.

B. increase the heat transfer area.
C. relieve stresses caused by thermal expansion.
D. increase log mean temperature gradient.

Leidenfrost point is a term concerned with the

Q. 8

A. condensation of the saturated vapor on a cold

surface.
B. concentration of a corrosive solution by
evaporation.
C. heat transfer between two highly viscous
liquids.
D. boiling of a liquid on a hot surface.
Baffles in the shell side of a shell Q.9
and tube heat exchanger

A. increase the cross-section of the shell side liquid.

B. force the liquid to flow parallel to the bank.
C. increase the shell side heat transfer co-efficient.
D. decrease the shell side heat transfer co-efficient.

The unit of heat transfer co-efficient Q.10

in SI unit is

A. J/M2°K B. W/m2°K
C. W/m°K D. J/m°K
Pick out the wrong
Q.11
statement.

A. In case of heat transfer by purely forced convection, GR/Re2 ≤ 1.

B. The equivalent diameter of heat transfer for a duct of square cross-section

(having each side as 'x') is equal to 4x.
C. Distillation process is not the same as evaporation.
D. The effectiveness of nucleate boiling depends basically on the ease with
which the bubbles are formed and detached from the heating surface.

Q.12
The heat flux (from outside to inside) across an insulating wall with thermal conductivity, K= 0.04
W/m.°K and thickness 0.16m is 10 W/m2. The temperature of the inside wall is - 5°C. The outside wall
temperature is

A. 25°C B. 30°C
C. 35°C D. 40°C
 Thermal conductivity of a conducting solid Q.13
material depends upon its

A. temperature
B. porosity
C. both (a) & (b)
D. neither (a) nor (b)

Q.14
Bulk of the convective heat transfer resistance from a hot tube surface to the fluid
flowing in it, is

A. in the central core of the fluid.

B. uniformly distributed throughout the fluid.
C. mainly confined to a thin film of fluid near the surface.
D. none of these.
 Q.15

A 10 cm dia steam pipe, carrying steam at 180°C, is covered with an insulation

(conductivity = 0.6 W/m.°C). It losses heat to the surroundings at 30°C. Assume a heat
transfer co-efficient of 0.8 W/m2.°C for heat transfer from surface to the surroundings.
Neglect wall resistance of the pipe and film resistance of steam. If the insulation
thickness is 2 cms, the rate of heat loss from this insulated pipe will be

A. greater than that for uninsulated steam pipe.

B. less than that of the uninsulated steam pipe.
C. equal to that of the uninsulated steam pipe.
D. less than the steam pipe with 5 cms insulation.