Science and Scope of Biology

What is Biology?

• The study of life

• The science of living things

 Origins of word “biology”

• Biology (Greek or Latin origin)

• Bios = life
• Logos = study of
 Characteristics of Life
1. Cellular composition 6. Metabolism
2. Growth 7. Specific organization
3. Reproduction 8. Homeostasis
4. Movement 9. Responsiveness
5. Adaptation
 Cellular Composition
• Made up of at least one cell

• Unicellular - made of one cell (bacteria,

amoeba, paramecium)

• Multicellular - made up of two or more

cells (plants, fungi, animals)
 Growth
 Organism grows and develop following specific
instructions coded for by their genes
 Reproduction
• Asexual- cell division (mitosis)—one cell
becomes two Ex: bacteria
• Sexual- union of sex cells (sperm and egg)
Ex: plants and animals
 Movement
• 3 types:

A. Place to Place
B. External Part
C. Internal
 Adaptation
• Changing to meet the needs of the
environment
1. Bird migration
2. Human body temperature
3. Hibernation
4. Hare ear length
 Metabolism
• Is essentially a collection of chemical
reactions occurring within the body (or
Cell).
• Set of chemical reactions that convert
“food” into energy.
 Specific Organization

• Certain parts do specific jobs (ex: heart,

nucleus, chloroplasts, etc)
 Homeostasis
• Is the term used to describe maintaining a stable
internal environment.
• Maintaining the same state
Homeo = same, steady
Stasis = state
Examples:
-Water balance inside and outside of cell
-Human body temperature
*Cells function best when these are in balance
 Responsiveness
• Reaction(s) to various stimuli
(this is simply a reaction to an internal or
external force.)

Examples of stimuli: light, heat, pH,

vibration, smell, etc.– earthworms respond
to all of these
 Biology is a Unified Science

• Biology + Chemistry + Physics= Science

 Branches of Biology
1. Zoology- the study of animals

2. Ichthyology- the study of fish

3. Mammalogy- study of mammals
4. Ornithology- the study of birds
5. Botany- the study of plants

6. Microbiology- study of small life

7. Anatomy- study of an organism’s parts
8. Physiology- study of how organism’s
parts work
9. Entomology- study of insects

10. Genetics- study of heredity and genetic

material (DNA/RNA, chromosomes,
genes)
11. Ecology- study of all life in a particular
area, the relationships b/t those life forms
and the environment
12. Cell Biology- the study of cells
 Biology Pioneers
1. Aristotle
-Greek (1st bio. teacher)
“Father of Biology and
Zoology”
 More on Aristotle
• Supported spontaneous generation
theory
• Created a theory of the elements
4 elements:
A. Earth B. Air
C. Water D. Fire
-1st person to start classifying organisms
 2. Hippocrates
• Greek
• “Father of Medicine”
• Hippocratic Oath for
doctors (part of his
life-long legacy)
 3. Leeuwenhoek
• Dutch
• His hobby was lens
grinding
** He did NOT invent
the microscope, he
perfected microscope
lenses
• He was the first person to see:
A. Bacteria
B. Protozoans
C. Red blood cells
D. Sperm cells
-He did NOT support spontaneous
generation
 4. Lister
• British
• Hospital conditions
were dirty & infectious
• Used phenol as a
disinfectant
• “Father of Aseptic
Surgery”
 5. Fleming
• British
• Accidentally
discovered first
antibiotic (penicillin)
6. Salk and 7. Sabin
 Salk and Sabin
• Developed 1st polio
• Developed oral polio
vaccine injection
vaccine (1959)
(1955)
• Vaccines are
weakened forms of
disease that tricks
body into making
antibodies
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 Scientific method requires
intelligence, imagination, and
creativity.
What is scientific method?

The scientific method is a tool that

helps scientists and the rest of us to
solve problems and determine answers
to questions in a logical format.
It provides step-by-step, general
directions to help us work through
problems.
 Problem/Question
Observation/Research
Formulate a Hypothesis
Experiment
Collect and Analyze Results
Conclusion
Communicate the Results
 Steps of the
Scientific Method
1. Problem/Question: Develop a
question or problem that can
be solved through
experimentation.
2. Observation/Research: Make
observations and research
your topic of interest.

3. Formulate a Hypothesis:
Predict a possible answer to the
problem or question.
.
4. Experiment: Develop and follow a
procedure.
5. Collect and Analyze Results:
Modify the procedure if needed.
6. Conclusion: Include a statement that
accepts or rejects the hypothesis.
7. Communicate the Results: Be
prepared to present the project to an
audience.
The Chemical Basis of
Life
 Basic principles of chemistry
• It is important for us to understand the
basic principles of chemistry so we can
understand how the human body is
organized.
 Elements

• Matter —anything that has mass and

occupies space

• Element—simple form of matter, a substance

that cannot be broken down into two or more
different substances
 Compounds

• Compound—atoms of two or more

elements joined to form chemical
combinations
 Atoms
• Atomic structure—atoms contain several
different kinds of subatomic particles; the
most important are the following:
– Protons (+ or p)—positively charged
subatomic particles found in the nucleus
– Neutrons (n)—neutral subatomic particles
found in the nucleus
– Electrons (– or e)—negatively charged
subatomic particles found in the electron
cloud
 • Atomic number
-The number of protons
in an atom’s nucleus

• Atomic Weight
-The mass of
a single atom
 Basic Chemistry
• Energy levels
– The total number of electrons in an atom
equals the number of protons in the nucleus
(in a stable atom)
– The electrons form a “cloud” around the
nucleus
 Basic Chemistry
• Isotopes
– Isotopes of an element contain the same
number of protons but contain different
numbers of neutrons
Molecules and Compounds
– Molecule—two or more atoms joined together
– Compound—consists of molecules formed by
atoms of two or more elements
 Three types of bonds
• Covalent—formed by sharing of electron
pairs between atoms
• Ionic—formed by transfer of electrons;
strong electrostatic force that binds
positively and negatively charged ions
together
• Hydrogen---much weaker than ionic or
covalent bonds results from unequal
charge distribution on molecules
 Three chemical reaction in human
physiology
• There are three main chemical reactions
in human physiology:
1) Synthesis reaction
2) Decomposition reaction
3) Exchange reaction
 Synthesis reaction
• combining of two or more substances to form a
more complex substance; formation of new
chemical bonds: A + B → AB
• EXAMPLE:
• Amino Acid+Amino Acid = Protein
Decomposition reaction
• Decomposition reaction—breaking down of a
substance into two or more simpler substances;
breaking of chemical bonds: AB → A + B
• Example:
ATP → ADP + P + Energy (Heat)
 Exchange reaction
• Exchange reaction—decomposition of two
substances and, in exchange, synthesis of two
new compounds from them: AB + CD → AD + CB

Example:
H*Lactate + NaHCO3 → Na*Lactate + H*HCO3
 Metabolism
• Metabolism—all of the chemical
reactions that occur in body cells

• There are two types of metabolism:

-Catabolism
-Anabolism
• Catabolism
– Chemical reactions that break down complex
compounds into simpler ones and release
energy; hydrolysis is a common catabolic
reaction
• Anabolism
– Chemical reactions that join simple molecules
together to form more complex molecules
– Chemical reaction responsible for anabolism
is dehydration synthesis
Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules
• Organic molecules • Inorganic
is a compound that compounds—few
contains carbon— have carbon atoms
specifically C-C or and none have C–
C-H bond C or C–H bonds
 Inorganic Compounds
• Water
– The body’s most abundant and important
compound
– Properties of water
• Polarity—allows water to act as an effective
solvent; ionizes substances in solution
• The solvent allows transportation of essential
materials throughout the body
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide—closely
related to cellular respiration
– Oxygen—required to complete decomposition
reactions necessary for the release of energy
in the body
– Carbon dioxide—produced as a waste
product, also helps maintain the appropriate
acid-base balance in the body
• Electrolytes
– Large group of inorganic compounds, which
includes acids, bases, and salts
• Acids and bases—common and important chemical
substances that are chemical opposites
• Acids
- Any substance that releases a hydrogen ion (H+)
when in solution.
– ; “proton donor”
• Bases
- proton acceptors”
– Electrolytes that dissociate to yield hydroxide ions (OH–)
or other electrolytes that combine with hydrogen ions
(H+)
 Organic Compounds
• There are 4 major organic compounds
that are important to humans:
Macromolecules:
1) Carbohydrates
2) Proteins
3) Lipids
4) Nucleic Acids
 Carbohydrates
• There are three main carbohydrates:
1) Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
2) Disaccharides (double sugars)
3) Polysaccharides (complex sugars)
 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates—organic compounds
containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen;
commonly called sugars and starches
– Monosaccharides—simple sugars with short
carbon chains;
– Disaccharides and polysaccharides—simple
sugars that are bonded together through a
synthesis reaction
 Proteins
– Most abundant organic compounds
– Chainlike polymers
– Amino acids—building blocks of proteins
Organic Molecules
• Lipids
– Water-insoluble organic molecules that are critically
important biological compounds
– Major roles:
• Energy source
• Structural role
• Integral parts of cell membranes
 Lipids
Triglycerides, or fats
• Most abundant lipids and most concentrated
source of energy
• Phospholipids
• Fat compounds similar to triglyceride
• One end of the phospholipid is water-soluble
(hydrophilic); the other end is fat-soluble
(hydrophobic)
• Steroids
• Main component is steroid nucleus
• Involved in many structural and functional roles
 Nucleic acids
• There are two types of nucleic acids:
• 1) DNA
• 2) RNA
1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• Composed of deoxyribonucleotides; that is,
structural units composed of the pentose sugar
(deoxyribose), phosphate group, and nitrogenous
base (cytosine, thymine, guanine, or adenine)
– Base pairs hold the two chains of DNA molecule
together
– DNA functions as the molecule of heredity

2. RNA (ribonucleic acid)

– Composed of the pentose sugar (ribose), phosphate
group, and a nitrogenous base
 Similarities and Difference of DNA
and RNA
• Have similar • Differences:
nucleotides: -Double helix vs.
Adenine (A) single helix
Guanine (G) -Ribose sugar vs.
Cytosine (C) deoxyribose sugar
-RNA has a
nucleotide of Uracil
and DNA has a
nucleotide of
thymine
 Energy
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)- transfers energy
from one chemical pathway to another. It is
composed of one adenine molecule and three
phosphate molecules.
• ENZYMES
• -are biological molecules (typically proteins)
that significantly speed up the rate of virtually all
of the chemical reactions that take place within
cells.
• - They are vital for life and serve a wide
range of important functions in the body, such as
aiding in digestion and metabolism
Examples of specific Enzymes

1. Lipases – a group of enzymes that help digest fats in the

gut
2. Amylase – helps change starches into sugar
3. Maltase – also found in Saliva; breaks the sugar maltose
into glucose
4. Trypsin – found in the small intestine, breaks proteins
down into amino acids.
5. Lactase – also found in the small intestine, breaks
lactose, the sugar in milk, into glucose and galactose.
6. Acetylcholineterase – breaks down the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine in nerves and muscles.
7. Helicase – unravels DNA
8. DNA Polymerase – synthesize DNA from
deoxyribonucleotides.
What do enzymes do?

The digestive system – enzymes help the body

break down larger complex molecules into smaller
molecules, such as glucose, so that the body can
use them as fuel.

DNA replication – each cell in your body contains

DNA. Each time a cell divides, that DNA needs to be
copied. Enzymes help in this process by unwinding
the DNA coils and copying the information.

Liver enzymes – the liver breaks down toxins in the

body. To do this, it uses a range of enzymes.