Mechanical failure

(kegagalan Mekanis)
Mekanisme pada: Moderately Ductile Failure
• Failure Stages (tahapan Kegagalan):
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and coalescence at surface
s

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.) 2
Crack to failure
• Bagaimana retakan dapat menyebabkan patahan?
• Setiap bahan pada dasarnya memiliki lubang “flaws” pada kondisi
normal. Umumnya flaws ini berada didalam badan maupun di
permukaan material tersebut.dan berukuran sangatkecil

• Flaws ini menentukan kekuatan tahan suatu bahan sebelum patah.

Perbesaran lubang “flaws” ini bergantung pada besarnya tegangan
(stress) pada ujung lubang (stress at the tip of the crack/flaws),
orientasi retakan dan geometri suatu bahan

“flaws” disebut juga stress raiser

 Flaws are Stress Concentrators! (lubang
adaah cacat yang terkonsentrasi!)
Kita bisa menghitung stress maksimal agar tidak
terjadi/untuk mencegah pembesaran crack

• Griffith Crack

1/ 2
a
sm  2so    K t so
 t  If it is assumed that a crack is
similar to an elliptical hole through a
plate, and is oriented perpendicular
where to the applied stress, the maximum
t t = radius of curvature stress, sm, occurs at the crack tip

so = applied stress
sm = stress at crack tip
Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

4
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

5
• Stress raiser lebih berpengaruh pada material yang getas (brittle).
Dibanding pada material ductile.
• Karena pada ductile material disaat tegangan melampau UTS akan
terjadi plastic deformation yang akan menyebabkan penyebaran
merata stress/tegangan pada tiap flaws
• plastic deformation dan penyebaran merata stress ini tidak dialami
oleh material getas(brittle)
Criterion for Crack Propagation
Crack propagates if crack-tip stress (sm)
exceeds a critical stress (sc)
1/ 2
 2E s 
i.e., sm > sc sc   
 a 
where
– E = modulus of elasticity
– s = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack

For ductile materials => replace s with s + p

where p is plastic deformation energy

7
Tutorial (CRACK PROPAGATION)
Ketangguhan Patah
• Ketahanan suatu material terhadap patahan
• Hubungan antara crack propagation (𝜎𝑐 )(critical stress) and crack
length (a)
Pda kondisi , Ketebalan bahan
<dibandingkan besarnya retakan.
• Kc: Ketangguhan Patah
• 𝜎𝑐 : critical stress
• a : crack length
• Y : dimensionless parameter
Untuk Material yang tebal, dimana pada saat
diberikan load atau beban, tida ada perubahan
strain pada komponen alat secara tegak lurus
dengan arah gaya maka perhitungan kekuatah
tahanan patah (fracture toughness), adalah
sebagai berikut

Pda kondisi , Ketebalan

bahan >> dibandingkan
besarnya retakan.

10
Design Example: Aircraft Wing
• Material has KIc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
K Ic --failure stress = ?
• Use... sc 
Y amax
• Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
KIc
= s a = constant
Y 
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

s c amax   s
A c amax  B

Answer: (sc )B  168 MPa 11

Impact fracture testing
• Charpy and izod
Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy
• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914ºC)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials ( s y > E/150)

Temperature Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature

13
FATIGUE
• Kegagalan yang terjadi karena
terkena beban dinamis maupun
berfluktuatif secara terus
menerus.
• mean stress :
• Range stress :
• Amplitude Stress:

• Ratio Stress :
FATIGUE(S-N • Dalam pengujian dilakukan
DIAGRAM) penarikan beban berkali kali pada
6 spesiemen.
• Dari hasil uji akan didapatkan
diagram S-N
YOUR TASK
• HAL APA YANG MEMPENGARUHI UMUR BAHAN (fatigue life)?
• Hal apa yang anda perlukan untuk memperpanjang umur bahan anda
dari factor kelelahan bahan?
Creep Sample deformation at a constant stress (s) vs. time
s
s,e

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope De/Dt).
Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister &
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) Rethwisch 8e.

increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. 17

Creep: Temperature Dependence
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Adapted from Fig. 8.29,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

18
Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, s
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
 Qc 
e s  K 2s exp  
n
activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
• Strain rate 200
427ºC
Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.

Stress (MPa)
(Fig. 8.31 is from Metals
increases 100 Handbook: Properties
538ºC and Selection:
with increasing 40 Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
T, s 20
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
9th ed., D. Benjamin
649ºC (Senior Ed.), American
10 Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
19
Creep Failure
• Failure: along grain boundaries.

g.b. cavities

applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
Press, Inc.)

20
Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime
• Estimate rupture time
S-590 Iron, T = 800ºC, s = 20,000 psi

100 Time to rupture, tr

T (20  log t r )  L

Stress (103 psi)

20 function of
temperature
10 applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

data for
S-590 Iron

12 16 20 24 28
1 (1073 K )(20  log t r )  24 x103
103 L (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J. Ans: tr = 233 hr
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
21
 Estimate the rupture time for
S-590 Iron, T = 750ºC, s = 20,000 psi
• Solution:

Time to rupture, tr 100

Stress (103 psi)

T (20  log t r )  L
20
temperature function of
applied stress 10
time to failure (rupture)
data for

(1023 K )(20  log t r )  24 x103 S-590 Iron

1
12 16 20 24 28
103 L (K-h)
Ans: tr = 2890 hr Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J.
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
22 22