CFI Level II FAA Study Guide

FAA Oral CFII
Auston Love
Single Pilot Resource Management (SRM)
• The art and science of managing all the resources (both on board the
aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot (prior to and
during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight is never in
doubt.
• Most fatal accidents include a lack of SRM skills as a causal factor.
• CARATS:
• CFIT
• ADM
• Risk Management
• Automation Management
• Task Management
• Situational Awareness.
Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)
• Is an accident in which an airworthy aircraft, under pilot control, is
unintentionally flown into terrain.
• Make sure to use current charts and procedures during the planning
of the flight to ensure the intended flightpath avoids terrain and
obstacles.
• Have an awareness of potential terrain and obstacles along route
• Plan departures and arrivals to avoid terrain/obstacles
• Alter the flight as necessary to avoid terrain/obstacles.
• Fly published MEA’s for your route
Aeronautical Decision Making
• Systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to
consistently determine the best course of action for a given set of
circumstances.
• Use a sound decision making process:
• 3 P’s – Perceive, Process, Perform
• DECIDE – Detect, Estimate, Choose, Identify, Do, Evaluate
• FADD – (My favorite but not in any FAA handbook) – Fly the Airplane, Assess
the Situation, Decide what to do, DO IT!
Risk Management
• The systematic approach to identify hazards, assess the degree of risk,
and determine the best course of action.
• PAVE checklist –divides the risks of flight into four categories.
• Pilot: IMSAFE checklist. Also, current? Proficient?
• Aircraft: airworthy? Properly equipped? Peformance capabilities?
• environment: Wx hazards, terrain, airports/runways, day/night, etc.
• External Pressures – meetings, people waiting at destinations, desire
to impress someone.
Risk Management Continued
• Risk Management Principles:
• Accept no Unnecessary Risk
• Make Risk Decisions at the appropriate level
• Accept Risk When Benefits outweigh the Costs
• Integrate Risk Management into planning at all level
• TEAM: Transfer, Eliminate, Accept, Mitigate

Automation Management
• Demonstrated ability to control and navigate an aircraft by correctly
managing its automated systems.
• Includes understanding whether and when to use automated
systems, including, but not limited, to the GPS or the autopilot.
• Use it to manage workload
• Must remain aware of current and anticipated modes and status of
automated systems.
Task Management
• The process pilots use to manage the many concurrent tasks involved
in safely operating an aircraft.
• Prioritize tasks
• Complete the tasks in a timely manner
• Execute all checklists and procedures in a manner that does not
increase workload at critical times
Situational Awareness
• Maintaining an accurate perception and understanding of all factors
and conditions related to pilot, aircraft, environment, and external
pressures that affect safety before, during, and after the flight.
• Dangerous to become fixated on a problem to the exclusion of other
aspects of flight
• Developing a mental picture of everything that is currently happening
and also developing an accurate assessment of the future status of
the flight.
Flight Instrument
Systems
Magnetic Compass
• P: Alignment with lines of flux

• I: Compass Heading
• M: Cardinal Directions, 30/10/5 deg
• P: Magnetism
• L:
• Countermagnet cause issues
• 18 deg bank
• E: VDMONA
Magnetic Compass:
Variation
• Difference in True North and Magnetic North

• Isogonic lines
• Agonic Line
• Changes based on Geography, not heading
• East is the Least, West is the Best (-E/+W)
Magnetic Compass:
Deviation
• Compass needle deflected by local

magnetic fields (interference)
• Changes depending on heading, not
geography
Magnetic Compass:
Magnetic Dip
• As approach poles vertical component of

flux lines increases
• Compass unusable in extreme lattitudes
• Magnets help compensate for usability
further N/S, but cause other errors
Magnetic Compass:
Northerly/Southerly
• Turning errors
• Undershoot North
• Overshoot South
• Lattitude + ½ Bank angle
• “UNOS”
• Reads correct on E/W
• In between readings are proportional
• Timed turns
Magnetic Compass:
Acceleration/Deceleration
• Deflection of needle
• East and West headings
• Inertia and Magnetic Dip
• Compass card tilts
• Accelerate North
• Decelerate South
• “ANDS”
Magnetic Compass:
Oscillation
• Combination of all errors leads to oscillating

nature of compass readings
• Wait until stabilized to take reading
• Use average of the swings
Pitot-Static System
• Description
• Pitot Tube
• Drain hole
• Ram Air Inlet
• Static Port
• Lines
• Alternate Static Source
• Instruments
• ASI
• ALT
• VSI
ASI
• P: Differential Pressure
• I: KIAS
• M:
• White Arc
• Green Arc
• Yellow Arc
• Red Line
• P: Dynamic vs Static Pressure
• L: only KIAS, Other V speeds missing (Vr,
Va, Vx, Vy, Vg)
• E: Calibration, Blockage, Mechanical
Airspeeds
• Indicated
• Calibrated
• Equivalent
• True
• [Ground]
ALT
• I: Height above selected pressure level
• M: 10,000’; 1,000’; 100’; 20’; crosshatch
window <10,000’
• P: Static Pressure vs Standard (Aneroid
Wafers)
• L: Max Altitude; Calibration; Kollsman
Window (28-31”); <28” flight not rec.
• E: Nonstandard temperature, lapse rates,
user error, blockage
High to Low, Watch Out
Below!
Hot to Cold,
Watch Out
Below!
Altitudes
• Indicated
• True
• Absolute
• Pressure
• Density
VSI
• I: Immediate Trend and Stabilized Rate
• M: -20 – 0 - +20 in 100 FPM increments
• P: Instantaneous Static Pressure vs
Calibrated Leak Static Pressure
• L: 2,000 FPM; 6-9 sec lag for rate
• E: Calibration, mechanical, blockage
VSI
VSI
Pitot-Static System
• Blockages
• Pitot
• Drain
• Static
• Difficult to detect in Cruise
• Flight in potential icing conditions
Gyroscopic Instruments
Rigidity in Space Precession

ADI
• P: Rigidity in Space
• I: Relation to Horizon (Pitch and
Bank)
• M: Airplane, Sky, Ground, Pitch
deg, Bank deg
• P: Gyro (Vacuum or Electric)
• L: >60 deg pitch, >100 deg bank
will tumble
• E: Calibration, Mechanical,
Powering system failure, 180 deg
steep rollout precess climbing
turn opposite direction
ADI
Pendulous Vein using Precession to
align perpendicular to force of
gravity
DG
• P: Rigidity in Space
• I: Heading
• M: Cardinal directions, 30/10/5
deg, 45 deg reference, bug
• P: Gyro (Vacuum, electric)
• L: >60 deg bank will tumble, must
align
• E: Precession due to bearing
friction, orientation as Earth
Rotates, mechanical, powering
system failure
Turn Coordinator
• P: Precession
• I: Rate of Turn & Rate of Roll
• M: Level, Standard Rate, (1/2)
• P: Gyro (Canted gimbal) (Vac/elec)
• L: No pitch info, indirect bank
• E: Calibration, mechanical
Vacuum System
Navigation Equipment
Overview
• VOR • NDB
• DME • Transponder
• ILS • GPS
• LDA • WAAS
• SDF
Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range
(VOR)
• 108.0 – 117.95 MHz
• Line of sight
• Range based on altitude
• Positive ID by Morse Code
• Effectiveness depends on proper
adjustment of ground and
airborne equipment
• Accurate +/- 1 deg
(VOR)
• Reference and variable signal
• No heading info, only orientation
• Errors and limitation
• Cone of confusion
• Area of ambiguity
• Reverse Sensing
• Line of sight
• Prop revolutions (+/- 6 deg error)
(VOR)
• Service Volume
• Terminal (T)
• Low (L)
• High (H)
• Line of sight
• Check Chart Supplement for
limitations if off-airway
(VOR)
• Accuracy check
• VOT
• Ground
• Airborne
• Airway
• Dual
• Bench
• MON
• GPS Outage
• 100 NM, ILS or VOR SIAP
• Continuous reception at 5,000 AGL
VORTAC & VOR/DME
• Combine VOR with range
information
• Allows ARC
• Fix definition
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
• Paired pulses (interrogation)
• Ground station returns on
different frequency (reply)
• Time between at known speed
yields distance (d=vt)
• Up to 199 NM, accuracy 3% or ½
NM (greater)
• Slant range
• 1,000’ per 1 NM for usable
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
• Guidance
• Horizontal (LOC)
• Vertical (GS)
• Range
• Marker Beacon
• DME
• Visual
• Approach Lights
• TD and CL Lights
• Runway Lights
• 1 ILS System operational at a
time (ie. ILS 9L or 27 R)
• Sensitivity increases as approach
receivers
• LOC (108.10 – 111.95 MHz)
• Located past DER
• Adjusted for 700’ course width at
RTH
• Couse line extends in opposite
direction (back course)
• More sensitive due to location
• Morse ID preceded by I (●●)
• LOC (108.10 – 111.95 MHz)
• 18 NM at 10 Deg
• 10 NM at 35 Deg
• Reliable signal IDENT
• Unreliable signal outside
• GS (329.15 – 335.00 MHz)
• Located
• 750 – 1,250’ from AER
• Offset 250 – 650’ from CL
• Glide path 1.4 deg wide
• Navigation to DA
• Paired with LOC freq.
• Below DA must supplement with
visual reference to runway
environment
• 3 deg slope typically
• MM 200’, OM 1,400’ ATDZE
• Range 10 NM or extended svc vol.
• GS (329.15 – 335.00 MHz)
• Approach from below
• FAF is GS interception at intercept
altitude on LOC centerline
• False glideslopes, reverse sensing
above
• TCH reference for glideslope
antenna
ALSF-2
ALSF-1
MALS
MALSF
MALSR/SSALR
ODALS
• Marker Beacons
• 3 Watts, elliptical pattern
• 1,000’ AGL
• 2,400’ Wide
• 4,200’ Long
• OM
• FAF on LOC
• SA for GS Intx on ILS
• MM
• 3,500’ from RTH
• 200’ ATDZE on ILS
• IM
• DA (Cat II) – 100’ ATDZE
• BC
• FAF
• DME + ILS
• Use in lieu of OM
• As BC FAF
• LOC Fixes
• DME on other Facility
• ARC IAF
• BC FAF
• Sub for OM
• Lowest Minimums
• Cat I
• 200’ ATDZE 2400 RVR
• TDZL + CL 1800 RVR
• Autopilot/FD/HUD 1800 RVR
• Special Authorization Cat I
• HUD DA 150’ ATDZE 1400 RVR
• Cat II
• Autoland/HUD
• 100’ ATDZE 1200 RVR
• Cat IIIa
• 100’ ATDZE RVR 700
• Cat IIIb
• 50’ ATDZE RVR 150
• Cat IIIc, 0-0
• Inoperative Components
• LOC Inop
• ILS NA
• GS Inop
• LOC authorized
• Course Distortion
• Signal interference by vehicles or
aircraft
• ILS critical area in effect when
• CIG < 800’
• Vis < 2 SM
• LOC Critical Area
• Movement through NA when
arriving aircraft inside OM/FAF
• NA when aircraft inside MM or ½
NM final
• CIG < 200’
• Vis < 2000 RVR
• GS Critical Area
• Movement through NA when
arriving aircraft inside OM/FAF
unless reported RWY in sight and
circle/side step to another RWY
• No Critical area protection if
• CIG at/above 800’
• Vis at/above 2 SM
• Advise tower if autoland/coupled
• Holding <5000’ between OM
and Airport
• NA when CIG < 800’, Vis < 2 sm
• Could cause LOC distortion
Localizer Type Directional Aid (LDA)
• Comparable use and accuracy as
LOC, not part of ILS
• More precise than SDF
• Not aligned with runway
• S-LDA if <30 deg
• Circle only if >30 deg
• Some have GS (APV), expect
additional maneuvering
compared to ILS
Simplified Directional Facility (SDF)
• Final approach course similar to
LOC
• No GS
• 108.10 – 111.95 MHz
• Course may not be aligned with
RWY
• Course may be wider than LOC (6
or 12 deg)
• 3 letter Morse IDENT
• One SDF Approach Remaining in
Morristown, TN.
Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
• Low or Medium Frequency (190
– 535 kHz)
• Bearings or homing
• Three letter ident
• Two letter ident for compass
locators
• Voice transmission unless “W”
Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
• Subject to disturbances
• Lightning
• Precipitation static
• Distant station interference (night)
• All disturbances affect Ident
• Noise, voice, music, false ident
• No flag, must continuously
monitor broadcast
ADF
Transponder and Encoding
• Primary Target
• Mode A
• Unique radar return
• Mode C
• Pressure altitude
• Reporting requirement when contact
ATC
• Mode S
• ADS-B Out
• Faster return
• On ALT in movement area
• OFF/STBY in parking/gate
Transponder and Encoding
• IDENT – on request
• Cancel IFR – squawk VFR 1200
• Emergency
• 7500 – Hijack
• 7600 – Lost Communication
• 7700 – Emergency
• 7777 – Military Interceptors
• ADS-B OUT - mandate 1/1/20
• ADS-B IN - enhanced SA
• Wx, traffic info
GPS
• Space-based radio-navigation
system
• 24+ constellation of satellites
• Minimum 5 visible worldwide
• Satellite broadcasts code
containing precise time,
position, and status
• Receiver calculates pseudo-
range using known rate and time
RAIM
• Triangulation allows for precise
position information
• 3 for 2-d
• 4 for 3-d
• 5 for RAIM
• 6 for RAIM with fault exclusion
• Baro-aid may replace 1
• Additional pseudo range enables
verification of 3-d position
solution
• Lose RAIM go missed
GPS Receiver
• Navigation database up to date
• Also verify WPs when load approach
• Approved for IFR
• Non-WAAS or for hire must have
secondary system (ie VOR receiver)
• Mode verification critical (RNP)
• 2 NM TERM to APR
• GPS vs VLOC
• RAIM available
• Errors:
• Not enough satellites
• Potential error exceeding limit for phase of
flight (ie satellite geometry)
• Space weather may interfere with signal
by changing rate of signal transmission
Suitable RNAV on Conventional Procedures
and Routes
• GPS may substitute:
• VOR
• DME
• TACAN
• VORTAC
• VOR/DME
• NDB
• Compass Locator (OM & MM)
• When:
• NAVAID not available
• Airplane not equipped with ADF or
DME
• ADF or DME Inop
and Routes
• GPS may provide Alternate Means
of Navigation:
• VOR
• DME
• VORTAC
• VOR/DME
• TACAN
• NDB
• Compass Locator (OM & MM)
• When:
• NAVAID is operational
• For procedure or route
• Need not monitor NAVAID
• Database currency critical
and Routes
• GPS may be used to determine
Position/distance to:
• VOR
• TACAN
• NDB
• Compass Locator
• DME Fix
• VOR Radial Fix
• NDB Bearing
• Compass Locator Bearing
intersecting VOR or LOC
and Routes
• GPS may be used to navigate
To/From:
• VOR
• TACAN
• NDB
• Compass Locator
and Routes
• GPS may be used to Hold over:
• VOR
• TACAN
• NDB
• Compass Locator
• DME Fix
and Routes
• GPS may be used to:
• Fly DME ARC
and Routes
• Flight planning:
• Alternate must have non-GPS
reliant procedure available (non-
WAAS)
• Must do RAIM Check
WAAS
• Improved integrity of GPS
• 1.5-2 m vs 20 m
• https://www.faa.gov/news/fact_sheets/news_story.cfm?newsId=14974&omniRss=
fact_sheetsAoc&cid=103_F_S
• Ground Stations monitor GPS signal

based on ionospheric effects
• Data relayed to Master Station for
correction computation
• Correction message uplinked to
geostationary satellite
• Message broadcast
• GEO also gives additional
pseudorange
WAAS
• Enables:
• LNAV
• LPV
• LP
• Can also use WAAS to perform
• LNAV/VNAV
Summary
• Ground Based Systems
• VOR
• ILS
• NDB
• Space Based Systems
• GPS
• Integrated Systems
• WAAS
• GBAS
Airplane attitude instrument
flying
Control/Performance Method
Primary & Supporting Method
Reference: Instrument Flying Handbook

Control Performance Method
• Aircraft performance is accomplished by controlling the aircraft
attitude and power output
• When flying in instrument flight conditions, the pilot controls the
attitude of the aircraft by referencing the flight instruments and
manipulating the power output of the engine to achieve the
performance desired. This method can be used to achieve a specific
performance level enabling a pilot to perform any basic instrument
maneuver.
• The instrumentation can be broken up into three different categories:
control, performance, and navigation.
Control Instruments
• The control instruments depict
immediate attitude and power
changes.
• The instrument for attitude display is
the attitude indicator.
• Power changes are directly reflected
on the manifold pressure gauge and
the tachometer.
• All three of these instruments can
reflect small adjustments, allowing for
precise control of aircraft attitude.
Control Instruments
• The control instruments do not indicate how fast
the aircraft is flying or at what altitude it is flying.
In order to determine these variables and others, a
pilot needs to refer to the performance
instruments.
Performance Instruments
• The performance instruments
directly reflect the performance the
aircraft is achieving.
• The speed of the aircraft can be
referenced on the airspeed indicator.
The altitude can be referenced on
the altimeter. The aircraft’s climb
performance can be determined by
referencing the vertical speed
indicator (VSI). Other performance
instruments available are the
heading indicator, pitch attitude
indicator, and the slip/skid indicator.
Performance Instruments
• The performance instruments most directly reflect a change in
acceleration, which is defined as change in velocity or direction.
Therefore, these instruments indicate if the aircraft is changing
airspeed, altitude, or heading, which are horizontal, vertical, or lateral
vectors.
Navigation Instruments
• The navigation instruments are
comprised of global positioning
system (GPS) displays and indicators,
very high frequency omnidirectional
range/nondirectional radio beacon
(VOR/NDB) indicators, moving map
displays, localizer, and glideslope (GS)
indicators.
• Navigation instruments allow the pilot
to maneuver the aircraft along a
predetermined path of ground-based
or spaced-based navigation signals
without reference to any external
visual cues
4-Step Process Used to Change
Attitude
• In order to change the attitude of the aircraft, the pilot must make
the proper changes to the pitch, bank, or power settings of the
aircraft. Four steps (establish, trim, cross-check, and adjust) have
been developed in order to aid in the process.
1.) Establish
• Any time the attitude of the aircraft requires changing, the pilot
must adjust the pitch and/or bank in conjunction with power to
establish the desired performance.
• The changes in pitch and bank require the pilot to reference the
attitude indicator in order to make precise changes.
• Power changes should be verified on the tachometer, manifold
pressure gauge, etc.
• To ease the workload, the pilot should become familiar with the
approximate pitch and power changes necessary to establish a
specified attitude.
2.) Trim
• Another important step in attitude instrument flying is trimming the
aircraft. Trim is utilized to eliminate the need to apply force to the
control yoke in order to maintain the desired attitude.
• When the aircraft is trimmed appropriately, the pilot is able to relax
pressure on the control yoke and momentarily divert attention to
another task at hand without deviating from the desired attitude.
3.) Cross Check
• Once the initial attitude changes have been made, the
pilot should verify the performance of the aircraft.
Cross-checking the control and performance
instruments requires the pilot to visually scan the
instruments, as well as interpret the indications.
• During the cross-check, the pilot needs to determine
the magnitude of any deviations and determine how
much of a change is required. All changes are then
made based on the control instrument indications.
4.) Adjust
• The final step in the process is adjusting for any deviations that
have been noted during the cross-check.
• Adjustments should be made in small increments.
• The attitude indicator and the power instruments are
graduated in small increments to allow for precise changes to
be made. The pitch should be made in reference to bar widths
on the miniature airplane. The bank angle can be changed in
reference to the roll scale and the power can be adjusted in
reference to the tachometer, manifold pressure gauge, etc.
Applying the 4-Step Process
• In attitude instrument flight, the four-step process
is used to control pitch attitude, bank attitude, and
power application of the aircraft.
Pitch Control
• The pitch control is indicated on the attitude indicator,which
spans the full width of the PFD.
• The miniature airplane utilized to represent the aircraft in
conventional attitude indicators is replaced in glass panel
displays by a yellow chevron.
• Representing the nose of the aircraft, the point of the chevron
affords the pilot a much more precise indication of the degree
of pitch and allows the pilot to make small, precise changes
should the desired aircraft performance change.
• When the desired performance is not being achieved, precise
pitch changes should be made by referencing the point of the
yellow chevron.
Bank Control
• Precise bank control can be developed utilizing the roll pointer in
conjunction with the roll index displayed on the attitude indicator.
• In addition to the roll index, the instrument pilot utilizes the turn rate
indicator to maintain the aircraft in a standard rate turn (3° per
second).
Power Control
• The power instruments indicate how much power is being generated
by the engine.
• They are not affected by turbulence, improper trim, or control
pressures.
• All changes in power should be made with reference to power
instruments and cross-checked on performance instruments.
Power Control
• Attitude instrument flying demands increased precision when it comes to
power control.
• As experience increases, pilots begin to know approximately how much
change in throttle position is required to produce the desired change in
airspeed.
• It is imperative that the pilot make the specific changes on the power
instruments and allow the performance to stabilize. Avoid the tendency to
overcontrol.
• One common error encountered with glass panel displays is associated
with the precision of the digital readouts. This precision causes pilots to
focus too much attention on establishing the exact power setting
C & P Method in Summary
• Control and power instruments are the foundation for precise
attitude instrument flying.
• The keys to attitude instrument flying are establishing the desired
aircraft attitude on the attitude indicator and selecting the desired
engine output on the power instruments.
• Cross-checking is the vital ingredient in maintaining precise attitude
instrument flight.
Primary & Supporting Method
• The second method for performing attitude instrument flight is a direct
extension of the control/power method. By utilizing the primary and
supporting flight instruments in conjunction with the control and power
instruments, the pilot can precisely maintain aircraft attitude.
• This method utilizes the same instruments as the control/power
method; however, it focuses more on the instruments that depict the
most accurate indication for the aspect of the aircraft attitude being
controlled.
• Similar to the control/power method, all changes to aircraft attitude
need to be made using the attitude indicator and the power instruments
(tachometer, manifold pressure gauge, etc.).
Pitch Control
• The pitch of the aircraft refers to the angle between the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft and the natural horizon.
• When flying in instrument meteorological conditions
(IMC), the natural horizon is unavailable for reference
and an artificial horizon is utilized in its place.
• The only instrument capable of depicting the aircraft
attitude is the attitude indicator displayed on the PFD.
Pitch Control
• The attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) is the engine that
drives the attitude display.
• The AHRS unit determines the angle between the aircraft’s
longitudinal axis and the horizon line on initialization. There is no
need or means for the pilot to adjust the position of the yellow
chevron, which represents the nose of the aircraft.
Straight & Level Flt
• In straight-and-level flight, the pilot maintains a
constant altitude, airspeed and, for the most part,
heading for extended periods of time.
• To achieve this, the three primary instruments
that need to be referenced in order to maintain
these three variables are the altitude, airspeed,
and heading indicators.
Primary Pitch
• When the pilot is maintaining a constant altitude, the primary
instrument for pitch is the altimeter.
• As long as the aircraft maintains a constant airspeed and pitch attitude,
the altitude should remain constant.
• A rule of thumb for correcting altitude deviations is to establish a
change rate of twice the altitude deviation, not to exceed 500 fpm.
• For example, if the aircraft is off altitude by 40 feet, 2 × 40 = 80 feet, so a
descent of approximately 100 fpm allows the aircraft to return to the
desired altitude in a controlled, timely fashion.
Supporting Pitch
• The supporting instruments indicate trend, but they do not indicate
precise attitude indications.
• Three instruments (vertical speed, airspeed, and altitude trend tape)
indicate when the pitch attitude has changed and that the altitude is
changing.
Primary Bank
• The primary instrument for bank
angle is the heading indicator.
• There are supporting instruments

associated with bank as well. The
turn rate trend indicator shows
the pilot when the aircraft is
changing heading. The magnetic
compass is also useful for
maintaining a heading; however,
it is influenced by several errors
in various phases of flight
Primary Yaw
• The slip/skid indicator is the primary instrument for yaw.
• It is the only instrument that can indicate if the aircraft is moving
through the air with the longitudinal axis of the aircraft aligned with
the relative wind.
Primary Power
• The primary power instrument for straight-and-level flight is the
airspeed indicator
• The main focus of power is to maintain a desired airspeed during level
flight.
• . No other instrument delivers instantaneous indication.
IFR Regulations
Part 61
• 61.3 IRA Required
• 61.51 Logging Instrument Time
• 61.57 IRA Recency
• 61.65 IRA Rating Requirements
• 61.133 Restriction on
Commercial Certificate (no IRA)
61.3 Requirement for certificates, ratings, and
authorizations.
• (e) Instrument rating. No person • (1) The appropriate aircraft
may act as pilot in command of a category, class, type (if required),
civil aircraft under IFR or in and instrument rating on that
weather conditions less than person's pilot certificate for any
the minimums prescribed for airplane, helicopter, or powered-lift
VFR flight unless that person being flown;
holds: • (2) An airline transport pilot
certificate with the appropriate
aircraft category, class, and type
rating (if required) for the aircraft
being flown;
61.51 Pilot logbooks.
• (g) Logging instrument time. (1)
A person may log instrument
time only for that flight time
when the person operates the
aircraft solely by reference to
instruments under actual or
simulated instrument flight
conditions.
• (2) An authorized instructor may
log instrument time when
conducting instrument
flight instruction in
actual instrument flight
conditions.
• (3) For the purposes of logging • (i) The location and type of
instrument time to meet the each instrument approach
recent instrument accomplished; and
experience requirements of • (ii) The name of the safety
61.57(c) of this part, the pilot, if required.
following information must be
recorded in the person's
logbook—
• (4) A person may use time in a full
flight simulator, flight training
device, or aviation training device
for acquiring instrument
aeronautical experience for a
pilot certificate or rating
provided an authorized
instructor is present to observe
that time and signs the person's
logbook or training record to verify
the time and the content of the
training session.
• (5) A person may use time in a
full flight simulator, flight
training device, or aviation
training device for satisfying
instrument recency
experience requirements
provided a logbook or
training record is maintained to
specify the training device, time,
and the content.
61.57 Recent flight experience: Pilot in
command.
• (c) Instrument experience. Except as • (1) Use of an airplane, powered-lift, helicopter, or airship
provided in paragraph (e) of this section, for maintaining instrument
a person may act as pilot in command experience. Within the 6 calendar months
under IFR or weather conditions less than preceding the month of the flight, that person
the minimums prescribed for VFR only if: performed and logged at least the following tasks
and iterations in an airplane, powered-lift,
helicopter, or airship, as appropriate, for the
instrument rating privileges to be maintained in
actual weather conditions, or
under simulated conditions using a
view-limiting device that involves having
performed the following—
• (i) Six instrument approaches.
• (ii) Holding procedures and tasks.
• (iii) Intercepting and tracking courses
through the use of navigational electronic
systems.
command.
• (c) Instrument experience. Except as • (2) Use of a flight simulator or flight
provided in paragraph (e) of this section, training device for maintaining
a person may act as pilot in command instrument experience. Within the 6
under IFR or weather conditions less than calendar months preceding the month of the
the minimums prescribed for VFR only if: flight, that person performed and logged at least
the following tasks and iterations in a flight
simulator or flight training device, provided the
flight simulator or flight training device represents
the category of aircraft for the
instrument rating privileges to be
maintained and involves having
performed the following—
• (i) Six instrument approaches.
• (ii) Holding procedures and tasks.
• (iii) Intercepting and tracking courses
through the use of navigational electronic
systems.
command.
• (c) Instrument • ATD will count for 66 HIT
experience. Except as provided in
paragraph (e) of this section, a
person may act as pilot in
command under IFR or weather
conditions less than the
minimums prescribed for VFR only
if:
• effective November 26, 2018

61.65 Instrument rating requirements.
• (a) General. A person who • (1) Hold at least a current
applies for an instrument private pilot certificate, or be
rating must: concurrently applying for a
private pilot certificate, with an
airplane, helicopter, or powered-
lift rating appropriate to the
instrument rating sought;
• (a) General. A person who • (2) Be able to read, speak,
applies for an instrument write, and understand the
rating must: English language. If the
applicant is unable to meet any of these
requirements due to a medical condition,
the Administrator may place such
operating limitations on the applicant's
pilot certificate as are necessary for the
safe operation of the aircraft;
• (a) General. A person who • (3) Receive and log ground
applies for an instrument training from an
rating must:
authorized instructor
or accomplish a home-study
course of training on the
aeronautical knowledge areas
of paragraph (b) of this section
that apply to the instrument
rating sought;
• (a) General. A person who • (4) Receive a logbook or
applies for an instrument training record
rating must: endorsement from an
certifying that the person is
prepared to take the
required knowledge
test;
• (a) General. A person who • (5) Receive and log training
applies for an instrument on the areas of
rating must: operation of paragraph (c)
of this section from an
authorized instructor in an
aircraft, full flight simulator, or
flight training device that
represents an airplane,
helicopter, or powered-lift
appropriate to the instrument
rating sought;
• (a) General. A person who • (6) Receive a logbook or
applies for an instrument training record
rating must: endorsement from an
certifying that the person is
prepared to take the
required practical test;
• (a) General. A person who • (7) Pass the required
applies for an instrument knowledge test on the
rating must: aeronautical knowledge areas of
paragraph (b) of this section;
however, an applicant is not
required to take another
knowledge test when that person
already holds an instrument rating;
and
• (a) General. A person who applies for an • (8) Pass the required practical test
instrument rating must: on the areas of operation in paragraph (c)
of this section in—
• (i) An airplane, helicopter, or powered-lift
appropriate to the rating sought; or
• (ii) A full flight simulator or a flight training
device appropriate to the rating sought and
for the specific maneuver or instrument
approach procedure performed. If an
approved flight training device is used for the
practical test, the instrument approach
procedures conducted in that flight training
device are limited to one precision and one
nonprecision approach, provided the flight
training device is approved for the procedure
performed.
• (b) Aeronautical knowledge. A • (1) Federal Aviation Regulations
person who applies for an instrument rating of this chapter that apply to flight operations
must have received and logged ground under IFR;
training from an authorized instructor or
accomplished a home-study course on the
following aeronautical knowledge areas that
apply to the instrument rating sought:
• (b) Aeronautical knowledge. A • (2) Appropriate information that applies to
person who applies for an instrument rating flight operations under IFR in the
must have received and logged ground “Aeronautical Information
training from an authorized instructor or Manual;”
• (b) Aeronautical knowledge. A • (3) Air traffic control system and
person who applies for an instrument rating procedures for instrument flight
must have received and logged ground operations;
• (b) Aeronautical knowledge. A • (4) IFR navigation and
person who applies for an instrument rating approaches by use of navigation
must have received and logged ground
training from an authorized instructor or systems;
• (b) Aeronautical knowledge. A • (5) Use of IFR en route and
person who applies for an instrument rating
must have received and logged ground instrument approach
accomplished a home-study course on the procedure charts;
• (b) Aeronautical knowledge. A • (6) Procurement and use of
must have received and logged ground aviation weather reports
and forecasts and the
following aeronautical knowledge areas that elements of forecasting weather
apply to the instrument rating sought: trends based on that
information and personal
observation of weather
conditions;
• (b) Aeronautical knowledge. A
• (7) Safe and efficient
must have received and logged ground operation of aircraft
accomplished a home-study course on the under instrument flight
apply to the instrument rating sought: rules and conditions;
• (8) Recognition of
critical weather
situations and
windshear
avoidance;
person who applies for an instrument rating • (9) Aeronautical
training from an authorized instructor or decision making and
following aeronautical knowledge areas that jud
• (10) Crew resource
management,
including crew
communication and
coordination.gment; and
• (c) Flight proficiency. A person who • (1) Preflight preparation;
applies for an instrument rating must receive
and log training from an authorized instructor • (2) Preflight procedures;
in an aircraft, or in a full flight simulator or
flight training device, in accordance with
• (3) Air traffic control clearances
paragraph (g) of this section, that includes the and procedures;
following areas of operation: • (4) Flight by reference to
instruments;
• (c) Flight proficiency. A person who • (5) Navigation systems;
applies for an instrument rating must receive
and log training from an authorized instructor • (6) Instrument approach
in an aircraft, or in a full flight simulator or procedures;
flight training device, in accordance with
paragraph (g) of this section, that includes the • (7) Emergency operations; and
following areas of operation:
• (8) Postflight procedures.
• (d) Aeronautical experience for the • (1) Except as provided in paragraph (g) of this
instrument-airplane rating. A person who
applies for an instrument-airplane rating must
50 hours of cross-
section,
have logged: country flight time as
pilot in command, of which
10 hours must have been in an
airplane; and
• (d) Aeronautical experience for the • (2) Forty
hours of actual or
instrument-airplane rating. A person who simulated instrument time in the
applies for an instrument-airplane rating must areas of operation listed in paragraph (c) of
have logged:
this section, of which 15 hours must
have been received from an
authorized instructor who holds an
instrument-airplane rating, and the
instrument time includes:
• (d) Aeronautical experience for the • (i) Three hours of instrument flight
instrument-airplane rating. A person who training from an authorized instructor in an
applies for an instrument-airplane rating must airplane that is appropriate to the
have logged: instrument-airplane rating within 2
calendar months before the date of
the practical test; and
• (d) Aeronautical experience for the • (ii) Instrument flight training on cross country
instrument-airplane rating. A person who flight procedures, including one cross
applies for an instrument-airplane rating must country flight in an airplane
have logged:
with an authorized instructor,
that is performed under instrument
flight rules, when a flight plan has been
filed with an air traffic control facility, and
that involves—
• (d) Aeronautical experience for the • (A) A flight of250 nautical miles
instrument-airplane rating. A person who along airways or by directed
applies for an instrument-airplane rating must
have logged: routing from an air traffic control facility;
• (B) An instrument approach at
each airport; and
• (C) Three different kinds of
approaches with the use of navigation
systems.
61.133 Commercial pilot privileges and
limitations.
• (b) Limitations. (1) A person who • “The carriage of passengers
applies for a commercial pilot
certificate with an airplane category
for hire in (airplanes) (powered-
or powered-lift category rating and lifts) on cross-country flights in
does not hold an excess of 50 nautical miles

instrument rating in the or at night is prohibited.” The
limitation may be removed when the person
same category and class will satisfactorily accomplishes the requirements
be issued a commercial pilot listed in §61.65 of this part for an instrument
certificate that contains the rating in the same category and class of
aircraft listed on the person's commercial
limitation, pilot certificate.
Part 91
• 91.3 PIC • 91.131 Class B Airspace
• 91.21 PEDs • 91.135 Class A Airspace
• 91.103 AWKRAFT • 91.155 VFR Wx Mins
• 91.109 Safety Pilot • 91.157 SVFR
• 91.113 See & Avoid • 91.159 Hemispheric Rule
• 91.121 Altimeter Setting • 91.167 IFR Fuel
• 91.123 Clearances • 91.169 IFR Flight Plan
• 91.129 Class D Airspace • 91.171 VOR Check
Part 91
• 91.175 TO/LA Under IFR • 91.205 Equipment Requirements
• 91.177 Alternate Minimums • 91.215 Transponder
• 91.179 Cruising Level • 91.411 Inspections
• 91.181 Course • 91.413 Transponder Test
• 91.183 Communications
• 91.185 Lost Comms
• 91.187 Malfunction Reports
91.3 Responsibility and authority of the pilot
in command.
• (a) The pilot in command of an • (c) Each pilot in command who
aircraft is directly responsible deviates from a rule under
for, and is the final authority as paragraph (b) of this section
to, the operation of that aircraft. shall, upon the request of the
• (b) In an in-flight emergency Administrator, send a written
requiring immediate action, the report of that deviation to the
pilot in command may deviate Administrator.
from any rule of this part to the
extent required to meet that
emergency.
91.21 Portable electronic devices.
• (a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this • (5) Any other portable electronic device that the
section, no person may operate, nor may any operator of the aircraft has determined will not
operator or pilot in command of an aircraft allow cause interference with the navigation or
the operation of, any portable electronic device on communication system of the aircraft on which it is
any of the following U.S.-registered civil aircraft: to be used.
• (1) Aircraft operated by a holder of an air carrier • (c) In the case of an aircraft operated by a holder
operating certificate or an operating certificate; or of an air carrier operating certificate or an
operating certificate, the determination required
• (2) Any other aircraft while it is operated under by paragraph (b)(5) of this section shall be made by
IFR. that operator of the aircraft on which the
• (b) Paragraph (a) of this section does not apply particular device is to be used. In the case of other
to— aircraft, the determination may be made by the
pilot in command or other operator of the aircraft.
• (1) Portable voice recorders;
• (2) Hearing aids;
• (3) Heart pacemakers;
• (4) Electric shavers; or
91.103 Preflight action.
• Each pilot in command shall, before • (b) For any flight, runway lengths at
beginning a flight, become familiar airports of intended use, and the
with all available information following takeoff and landing distance
concerning that flight. This information:
information must include— • (1) For civil aircraft for which an
• (a) For a flight under IFR or a flight not approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight
in the vicinity of an airport, weather Manual containing takeoff and landing
reports and forecasts, fuel distance data is required, the takeoff
requirements, alternatives and landing distance data contained
available if the planned flight therein;
cannot be completed, and any
known traffic delays of which the
pilot in command has been advised by
ATC;
91.109 Flight instruction; Simulated
instrument flight and certain flight tests.
• (a) No person may operate a civil aircraft
that is being used for flight instruction
unless that aircraft has fully functioning
dual controls. However, instrument flight
instruction may be given in an airplane that
is equipped with a single, functioning
throwover control wheel that controls the
elevator and ailerons, in place of fixed,
dual controls, when—
• (1) The instructor has determined that
the flight can be conducted safely; and
• (2) The person manipulating the controls
has at least a private pilot certificate
with appropriate category and class
ratings.
• (b) An airplane equipped with a single, functioning
throwover control wheel that controls the elevator
and ailerons, in place of fixed, dual controls may be
used for flight instruction to conduct a flight review
required by 61.56 of this chapter, or to obtain
recent flight experience or an instrument
proficiency check required by 61.57 when—
• (1) The airplane is equipped with operable rudder
pedals at both pilot stations;
• (2) The pilot manipulating the controls is qualified
to serve and serves as pilot in command during
the entire flight;
• (3) The instructor is current and qualified to serve
as pilot in command of the airplane, meets the
requirements of 61.195(b), and has logged at least
25 hours of pilot-in-command flight time in the
make and model of airplane; and
• (4) The pilot in command and the instructor have
determined the flight can be conducted safely.
• (c) No person may operate a civil aircraft • (3) Except in the case of lighter-than-air aircraft,
in simulated instrument flight that aircraft is equipped with fully
unless— functioning dual controls. However,
simulated instrument flight may be conducted in a
• (1) The other control seat is occupied by a single-engine airplane, equipped with a single,
safety pilot who possesses at least: functioning, throwover control wheel, in place of
fixed, dual controls of the elevator and ailerons,
• (i) A private pilot certificate with when—
category and class ratings appropriate to • (i) The safety pilot has determined that the flight
the aircraft being flown; or can be conducted safely; and
• (ii) For purposes of providing training for a solo cross- • (ii) The person manipulating the controls has at
country endorsement under 61.93 of this chapter, a flight least a private pilot certificate with appropriate
instructor certificate with an appropriate sport pilot rating
and meets the requirements of 61.412 of this chapter. category and class ratings.
• (2) The safety pilot has adequate vision
forward and to each side of the aircraft, or a
competent observer in the aircraft
adequately supplements the vision of the
safety pilot; and
91.113 Right-of-way rules: Except water
operations.
• (b) General. When weather • (c) In distress. An aircraft in distress
has the right-of-way over all other
conditions permit, regardless air traffic.
of whether an operation is
conducted under instrument flight
rules or visual flight rules, vigilance
shall be maintained by each person
operating an aircraft so as to see
and avoid other aircraft. When a rule
of this section gives another aircraft the right-of-
way, the pilot shall give way to that aircraft and
may not pass over, under, or ahead of it unless
well clear.
91.117 Aircraft speed.
• (a) Unless otherwise authorized by the
Administrator, no person may operate an
aircraft below 10,000 feet MSL at an
indicated airspeed of more than 250
knots (288 m.p.h.).
• (b) Unless otherwise authorized or
required by ATC, no person may operate
an aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above
the surface within 4 nautical miles of the
primary airport of a Class C or Class D
airspace area at an indicated airspeed of
more than 200 knots (230 mph.). This
paragraph (b) does not apply to any
operations within a Class B airspace area.
Such operations shall comply with
paragraph (a) of this section.
91.117 Aircraft speed.
• (c) No person may operate an aircraft in the airspace
underlying a Class B airspace area designated for an
airport or in a VFR corridor designated through such a
Class B airspace area, at an indicated airspeed of more
than 200 knots (230 mph).
• (d) If the minimum safe airspeed for any particular
operation is greater than the maximum speed
prescribed in this section, the aircraft may be
operated at that minimum speed.
91.121 Altimeter settings.
• (a) Each person operating an aircraft shall
maintain the cruising altitude or flight level of
that aircraft, as the case may be, by reference
to an altimeter that is set, when operating—
• (1) Below 18,000 feet MSL, to—
• (i) The current reported
altimeter setting of a station
along the route and within 100
nautical miles of the aircraft;
91.121 Altimeter settings.
• (ii) If there is no station within the area prescribed in
paragraph (a)(1)(i) of this section, the current reported
altimeter setting of an appropriate available station; or
• (iii) In the case of an aircraft not equipped with a radio,
the elevation of the departure airport or an appropriate
altimeter setting available before departure; or
• (2) At or above 18,000 feet MSL,

to 29.92″ Hg.
91.123 Compliance with ATC clearances and
instructions.
• (a) When an ATC clearance has been
obtained, no pilot in command may
deviate from that clearance unless an
amended clearance is obtained, an
emergency exists, or the deviation is
in response to a traffic alert and
collision avoidance system resolution
advisory. However, except in Class A
airspace, a pilot may cancel an IFR
flight plan if the operation is being
conducted in VFR weather conditions.
When a pilot is uncertain of an ATC
clearance, that pilot shall immediately
request clarification from ATC.
instructions.
• (b) Except in an emergency, no • (d) Each pilot in command who
person may operate an aircraft (though not deviating from a
contrary to an ATC instruction in rule of this subpart) is given
an area in which air traffic priority by ATC in an emergency,
control is exercised. shall submit a detailed report of
• (c) Each pilot in command who, in an that emergency within 48 hours
emergency, or in response to a traffic to the manager of that ATC
alert and collision avoidance system facility, if requested by ATC.
resolution advisory, deviates from an
ATC clearance or instruction shall notify
ATC of that deviation as soon as
possible.
instructions.
• (e) Unless otherwise authorized • “Connection 220…”
by ATC, no person operating an • “Connection 222…”
aircraft may operate that aircraft
according to any clearance or
instruction that has been issued
to the pilot of another
aircraft for radar air traffic
control purposes.
91.129 Operations in Class D airspace.
• (d) Communications failure. Each • (2) If the aircraft radio fails in
person who operates an aircraft flight under VFR, the pilot in
in a Class D airspace area must command may operate that
maintain two-way radio aircraft and land if—
communications with the ATC • (i) Weather conditions are at or
facility having jurisdiction over above basic VFR weather
that area. minimums;
• (1) If the aircraft radio fails in • (ii) Visual contact with the tower
flight under IFR, the pilot must is maintained; and
comply with 91.185 of the part.
• (iii) A clearance to land is
received.
• (3) Each pilot operating an
airplane approaching to land on
a runway served by a visual
approach slope indicator must
maintain an altitude at or
above the glide path until a
lower altitude is necessary for a
safe landing.
• (f) Approaches. Except when • (g) Departures. No person may
conducting a circling approach operate an aircraft departing
under part 97 of this chapter or from an airport except in
unless otherwise required by compliance with the following:
ATC, each pilot must— • (1) Each pilot must comply with
• (1) Circle the airport to the left, any departure procedures
if operating an airplane; established for that airport by
the FAA.
91.131 Operations in Class B airspace.
• (c) Communications and navigation • (d) Other equipment requirements. No
equipment requirements. Unless person may operate an aircraft in a
otherwise authorized by ATC, no Class B airspace area unless the
person may operate an aircraft within aircraft is equipped with—
a Class B airspace area unless that • (1) The applicable operating
aircraft is equipped with— transponder and automatic altitude
• (1) For IFR operation. An operable reporting equipment specified in
VOR or TACAN receiver or an operable 91.215 (a), except as provided in
and suitable RNAV system; and 91.215 (e), and
• (2) For all operations. An operable • (2) After January 1, 2020, the
two-way radio capable of applicable Automatic Dependent
communications with ATC on Surveillance-Broadcast Out
appropriate frequencies for that Class equipment specified in 91.225.
B airspace area.
91.135 Operations in Class A airspace.
• Except as provided in paragraph
(d) of this section, each person
operating an aircraft in Class A
airspace must conduct that
operation under instrument
flight rules (IFR) and in
compliance with the following:
• (a) Clearance. Operations may
be conducted only under an ATC
clearance received prior to
entering the airspace.
• (b) Communications. Unless
otherwise authorized by ATC,
each aircraft operating in Class A
airspace must be equipped with
a two-way radio capable of
communicating with ATC on a
frequency assigned by ATC. Each
pilot must maintain two-way
radio communications with ATC
while operating in Class A
airspace.
• (c) Equipment requirements. Unless
otherwise authorized by ATC, no person
may operate an aircraft within Class A
airspace unless that aircraft is equipped
with the applicable equipment specified in
91.215, and after January 1, 2020, 91.225.
• (d) ATC authorizations. An operator may deviate from
any provision of this section under the provisions of
an ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having
jurisdiction of the airspace concerned. In the case of
an inoperative transponder, ATC may immediately
approve an operation within a Class A airspace area
allowing flight to continue, if desired, to the airport of
ultimate destination, including any intermediate
stops, or to proceed to a place where suitable repairs
can be made, or both. Requests for deviation from
any provision of this section must be submitted in
writing, at least 4 days before the proposed operation.
ATC may authorize a deviation on a continuing basis or
for an individual flight.
91.155 Basic VFR weather minimums.
• (a) Except as provided in
paragraph (b) of this section and
91.157, no person may operate
an aircraft under VFR when the
flight visibility is less, or at a
distance from clouds that is less,
than that prescribed for the
corresponding altitude and class
of airspace in the following
table:
91.155 Basic VFR weather minimums.
• (c) Except as provided in 91.157, no person may operate an
aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR within the lateral
boundaries of controlled airspace designated to the surface
for an airport when the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet.
• (d) Except as provided in 91.157 of this part, no person may
take off or land an aircraft, or enter the traffic pattern of an
airport, under VFR, within the lateral boundaries of the
surface areas of Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace
designated for an airport—
• (1) Unless ground visibility at that airport is at least 3 statute
miles; or
• (2) If ground visibility is not reported at that airport, unless
flight visibility during landing or takeoff, or while operating in
the traffic pattern is at least 3 statute miles.
• (e) For the purpose of this section, an aircraft operating at
the base altitude of a Class E airspace area is considered to
be within the airspace directly below that area.
91.157 Special VFR weather minimums.
• (a) Except as provided in appendix D,
section 3, of this part, special VFR
operations may be conducted
under the weather minimums and
requirements of this section,
instead of those contained in
91.155, below 10,000 feet MSL
within the airspace contained by
the upward extension of the
lateral boundaries of the
controlled airspace designated
to the surface for an airport.
• (b) Special VFR operations may only be
conducted—
• (1) With an ATC clearance;
• (2) Clear of clouds;
• (3) Except for helicopters, when flight visibility
is at least 1 statute mile; and
• (4) Except for helicopters, between sunrise
and sunset (or in Alaska, when the sun is 6
degrees or more below the horizon) unless—
• (i) The person being granted the ATC
clearance meets the applicable requirements
for instrument flight under part 61 of this
chapter; and
• (ii) The aircraft is equipped as required in
91.205(d).
• (c) No person may take off or land an
aircraft (other than a helicopter) under
special VFR—
• (1) Unless ground visibility is at least 1
statute mile; or
• (2) If ground visibility is not reported, unless flight
visibility is at least 1 statute mile. For the purposes of
this paragraph, the term flight visibility includes the
visibility from the cockpit of an aircraft in takeoff
position if:
• (i) The flight is conducted under this part 91; and
• (ii) The airport at which the aircraft is located is a
satellite airport that does not have weather reporting
capabilities.
• (d) The determination of visibility by a pilot in
accordance with paragraph (c)(2) of this section is not
an official weather report or an official ground
visibility report.
91.159 VFR cruising altitude or flight level.
• Except while holding in a holding pattern of 2
minutes or less, or while turning, each person
operating an aircraft under VFR in level cruising
flight more than 3,000 feet above the surface shall
maintain the appropriate altitude or flight level
prescribed below, unless otherwise authorized by
ATC:
• (a) When operating below 18,000 feet MSL and—
• (1) On a magnetic course of zero degrees through
179 degrees, any odd thousand foot MSL altitude +
500 feet (such as 3,500, 5,500, or 7,500); or
• (2) On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through
359 degrees, any even thousand foot MSL altitude
+ 500 feet (such as 4,500, 6,500, or 8,500).
• (b) When operating above 18,000 feet MSL,
maintain the altitude or flight level assigned by
ATC.
91.167 Fuel requirements for flight in IFR
conditions.
• (a) No person may operate a civil
aircraft in IFR conditions unless it
carries enough fuel (considering
weather reports and forecasts and
weather conditions) to—
• (1) Complete the flight to the first
airport of intended landing;
• (2) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, fly from that
airport to the alternate airport;
and
• (3) Fly after that for 45 minutes at
normal cruising speed
91.167 Fuel requirements for flight in IFR
conditions.
• (b) Paragraph (a)(2) of this section does not
apply if:
• (1) Part 97 of this chapter prescribes a
standard instrument approach
procedure to, or a special instrument
approach procedure has been issued by the
Administrator to the operator for, the first
airport of intended landing; and
• (2) Appropriate weather reports or weather
forecasts, or a combination of them, indicate
the following:
• (i) For aircraft other than helicopters. For at
least 1 hour before and for 1 hour after the
estimated time of arrival, the ceiling will be
at least 2,000 feet above the airport
elevation and the visibility will be at least 3
statute miles.
91.169 IFR flight plan: Information required.
• 91.169 IFR flight plan: Information required. • (b) Paragraph (a)(2) of this section does not
• (a) Information required. Unless otherwise apply if :
authorized by ATC, each person filing an IFR • (1) Part 97 of this chapter prescribes a
flight plan must include in it the following standard instrument approach procedure to,
information: or a special instrument approach procedure
has been issued by the Administrator to the
• (1) Information required under 91.153 (a) of operator for, the first airport of intended
this part; landing; and
• (2) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this • (2) Appropriate weather reports or weather
section, an alternate airport. forecasts, or a combination of them, indicate
the following:
• (i) For aircraft other than helicopters. For at
least 1 hour before and for 1 hour after the
estimated time of arrival, the ceiling will be
at least 2,000 feet above the airport
elevation and the visibility will be at least 3
statute miles.
91.169 IFR flight plan: Information required.
• (c) IFR alternate airport weather minima. Unless otherwise • (2) If no instrument approach procedure has been published
authorized by the Administrator, no person may include an in part 97 of this chapter and no special instrument approach
alternate airport in an IFR flight plan unless appropriate procedure has been issued by the Administrator to the
weather reports or weather forecasts, or a combination of operator, for the alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility
them, indicate that, at the estimated time of arrival at the minima are those allowing descent from the MEA,
alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility at that airport will approach, and landing under basic VFR.
be at or above the following weather minima:
• (d) Cancellation. When a flight plan has been activated, the
• (1) If an instrument approach procedure has been published pilot in command, upon canceling or completing the flight
in part 97 of this chapter, or a special instrument approach under the flight plan, shall notify an FAA Flight Service Station
procedure has been issued by the Administrator to the or ATC facility.
operator, for that airport, the following minima:
• (i) For aircraft other than helicopters: The alternate airport
minima specified in that procedure, or if none are
specified the following standard approach minima:
• (A) For a precision approach procedure. Ceiling 600 feet
and visibility 2 statute miles.
• (B) For a nonprecision approach procedure. Ceiling 800
feet and visibility 2 statute miles.
91.171 VOR equipment check for IFR
operations.
• VGAADB
91.173 ATC clearance and flight plan
required.
• No person may operate an
aircraft in controlled airspace
under IFR unless that person
has—
• (a) Filed an IFR flight plan; and
• (b) Received an appropriate ATC
clearance.
91.175 Takeoff and landing under IFR.
• (a) Instrument approaches to
civil airports. Unless otherwise
authorized by the FAA, when it is necessary to
use an instrument approach to a civil airport,
each person operating an aircraft must use a
procedure prescribed in part 97
of this chapter for that airport.
This paragraph does not apply to United States
military aircraft.
• (b) Authorized DA/DH or MDA. For the
purpose of this section, when the
approach procedure being used
provides for and requires the use of a
DA/DH or MDA, the authorized DA/DH
or MDA is the highest of the following:
• (1) The DA/DH or MDA prescribed by
the approach procedure.
• (2) The DA/DH or MDA prescribed for
the pilot in command.
• (3) The DA/DH or MDA appropriate for
the aircraft equipment available and
used during the approach.
• (b) Authorized DA/DH or MDA. For the
purpose of this section, when the
approach procedure being used
provides for and requires the use of a
DA/DH or MDA, the authorized DA/DH
or MDA is the highest of the following:
• (1) The DA/DH or MDA prescribed by
the approach procedure.
• (2) The DA/DH or MDA prescribed for
the pilot in command.
• (3) The DA/DH or MDA appropriate for
the aircraft equipment available and
used during the approach.
• (c) Operation below DA/DH or
MDA. Except as provided in
91.176 of this chapter, where a
DA/DH or MDA is applicable, no
pilot may operate an aircraft,
except a military aircraft of the
United States, below the
authorized MDA or continue an
approach below the authorized
DA/DH unless—
• (c) Operation below DA/DH or • (1) The aircraft is continuously in
MDA. Except as provided in a position from which a descent
91.176 of this chapter, where a to a landing on the intended
DA/DH or MDA is applicable, no runway can be made at a normal
pilot may operate an aircraft, rate of descent using normal
except a military aircraft of the maneuvers
DA/DH unless—
• (c) Operation below DA/DH or • (2) The flight visibility is not
MDA. Except as provided in less than the visibility prescribed
91.176 of this chapter, where a in the standard instrument
DA/DH or MDA is applicable, no approach being used; and
pilot may operate an aircraft,
except a military aircraft of the
DA/DH unless—
• Except for a Category II or Category III
(3) • (ii) The threshold.
approach where any necessary visual • (iii) The threshold markings.
reference requirements are specified by
the Administrator, at least one of the • (iv) The threshold lights.
following visual references for the • (v) The runway end identifier lights.
intended runway is distinctly visible and
identifiable to the pilot: • (vi) The visual glideslope indicator.
• (i) The approach light system, except • (vii) The touchdown zone or touchdown
that the pilot may not descend below 100 zone markings.
feet above the touchdown zone elevation • (viii) The touchdown zone lights.
using the approach lights as a reference
unless the red terminating bars or the red • (ix) The runway or runway markings.
side row bars are also distinctly visible • (x) The runway lights.
and identifiable.
Going below Minimums (91.175)
• (d) Landing. No pilot operating an aircraft, except
a military aircraft of the United States, may land
• (2) For all other operations
that aircraft when— under this part and parts 121,
• (1) For operations conducted under 91.176 of this 125, 129, and 135, the flight
part, the requirements of paragraphs (a)(3)(iii) or
(b)(3)(iii), as applicable, of that section are not visibility is less than the
met; or visibility prescribed in the
procedure being used.
• (e) Missed approach procedures. Each • (i) When the aircraft is being operated
pilot operating an aircraft, except a below MDA; or
military aircraft of the United States, • (ii) Upon arrival at the missed
shall immediately execute an approach point, including a DA/DH
appropriate missed approach where a DA/DH is specified and its use
procedure when either of the is required, and at any time after that
following conditions exist: until touchdown.
• (1) Whenever operating an aircraft
pursuant to paragraph (c) of this • (2) Whenever an identifiable part of
section or 91.176 of this part, and the the airport is not distinctly visible to
requirements of that paragraph or the pilot during a circling maneuver at
section are not met at either of the or above MDA, unless the inability to
following times: see an identifiable part of the airport
results only from a normal bank of the
aircraft during the circling approach.
• (f) Civil airport takeoff • (2) If takeoff weather minimums
minimums. This paragraph applies are not prescribed under part 97 of
to persons operating an aircraft this chapter for a particular airport,
under part 121, 125, 129, or 135 of the following weather minimums
this chapter. apply to takeoffs under IFR:
• (1) Unless otherwise authorized by • (i) For aircraft, other than
the FAA, no pilot may takeoff from helicopters, having two engines or
a civil airport under IFR unless the less—1 statute mile visibility.
weather conditions at time of • (ii) For aircraft having more than
takeoff are at or above the weather two engines— 1⁄2 statute mile
minimums for IFR takeoff visibility.
prescribed for that airport under
part 97 of this chapter.
• (3) Except as provided in
paragraph (f)(4) of this section,
no pilot may takeoff under IFR
from a civil airport having
published obstacle departure
procedures (ODPs) under part 97
of this chapter for the takeoff
runway to be used, unless the
pilot uses such ODPs or an
alternative procedure or route
assigned by air traffic control.
• (j) Limitation on procedure
turns. In the case of a radar
vector to a final approach course
or fix, a timed approach from a
holding fix, or an approach for
which the procedure specifies
“No PT,” no pilot may make a
procedure turn unless cleared to
do so by ATC.
91.177 Minimum altitudes for IFR operations.
• (a) Operation of aircraft at minimum • (1) The applicable minimum altitudes
altitudes. Except when necessary for prescribed in parts 95 and 97 of this
takeoff or landing, or unless otherwise chapter. However, if both a MEA and a
authorized by the FAA, no person may MOCA are prescribed for a particular
operate an aircraft under IFR below— route or route segment, a person may
operate an aircraft below the MEA
down to, but not below, the MOCA,
provided the applicable navigation
signals are available. For aircraft using
VOR for navigation, this applies only
when the aircraft is within 22 nautical
miles of that VOR (based on the
reasonable estimate by the pilot
operating the aircraft of that
distance); or
91.177 Minimum altitudes for IFR operations.
• (2) If no applicable minimum altitude • (b) Climb. Climb to a higher minimum
is prescribed in parts 95 and 97 of this IFR altitude shall begin immediately
chapter, then— after passing the point beyond which
• (i) In the case of operations over an that minimum altitude applies, except
area designated as a mountainous that when ground obstructions
area in part 95 of this chapter, an intervene, the point beyond which
altitude of 2,000 feet above the that higher minimum altitude applies
highest obstacle within a horizontal shall be crossed at or above the
distance of 4 nautical miles from the applicable MCA.
course to be flown; or
• (ii) In any other case, an altitude of
1,000 feet above the highest obstacle
within a horizontal distance of 4
nautical miles from the course to be
flown.
91.179 IFR cruising altitude or flight level.
• Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, the • (b) In uncontrolled airspace. Except while
following rules apply— in a holding pattern of 2 minutes or less
• (a) In controlled airspace. Each person or while turning, each person operating
operating an aircraft under IFR in level an aircraft under IFR in level cruising flight
cruising flight in controlled airspace shall in uncontrolled airspace shall maintain an
maintain the altitude or flight level appropriate altitude as follows:
assigned that aircraft by ATC. However, if • (1) When operating below 18,000 feet
the ATC clearance assigns “VFR conditions MSL and—
on-top,” that person shall maintain an • (i) On a magnetic course of zero degrees
altitude or flight level as prescribed by through 179 degrees, any odd thousand
§91.159. foot MSL altitude (such as 3,000, 5,000,
or 7,000); or
• (ii) On a magnetic course of 180 degrees
through 359 degrees, any even thousand
foot MSL altitude (such as 2,000, 4,000,
or 6,000).
91.181 Course to be flown.
• Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no
person may operate an aircraft within
controlled airspace under IFR except as
follows:
• (a) On an ATS route, along the centerline
of that airway.
• (b) On any other route, along the direct
course between the navigational aids or
fixes defining that route. However, this
section does not prohibit maneuvering
the aircraft to pass well clear of other air
traffic or the maneuvering of the aircraft
in VFR conditions to clear the intended
flight path both before and during climb
or descent.
91.183 IFR communications.
• Unless otherwise authorized by • (a) The time and altitude of passing
ATC, the pilot in command of each each designated reporting point,
aircraft operated under IFR in or the reporting points specified by
controlled airspace must ensure ATC, except that while the aircraft
that a continuous watch is is under radar control, only the
maintained on the appropriate passing of those reporting points
frequency and must report the specifically requested by ATC need
following as soon as possible— be reported;
• (b) Any unforecast weather
conditions encountered; and
• (c) Any other information relating
to the safety of flight.
91.185 IFR operations: Two-way radio
communications failure.
• (a) General. Unless otherwise
authorized by ATC, each pilot who
has two-way radio communications
failure when operating under IFR
shall comply with the rules of this
section.
• (b) VFR conditions. If the failure
occurs in VFR conditions, or if VFR
conditions are encountered after
the failure, each pilot shall
continue the flight under VFR and
land as soon as practicable.
• (c) IFR conditions. If the failure occurs in IFR
conditions, or if paragraph (b) of this section
cannot be complied with, each pilot shall
continue the flight according to the following:
• (1) Route. (i) By the route assigned in the last
ATC clearance received;
• (ii) If being radar vectored, by the direct route
from the point of radio failure to the fix,
route, or airway specified in the vector
clearance;
• (iii) In the absence of an assigned route, by
the route that ATC has advised may be
expected in a further clearance; or
• (iv) In the absence of an assigned route or a
route that ATC has advised may be expected
in a further clearance, by the route filed in the
flight plan.
• (2) Altitude. At the highest of the
following altitudes or flight levels
for the route segment being flown:
• (i) The altitude or flight level
assigned in the last ATC clearance
received;
• (ii) The minimum altitude
(converted, if appropriate, to
minimum flight level as prescribed
in 91.121(c)) for IFR operations; or
• (iii) The altitude or flight level ATC
has advised may be expected in a
further clearance.
• (3) Leave clearance limit. (i) When
the clearance limit is a fix from
which an approach begins,
commence descent or descent and
approach as close as possible to
the expect-further-clearance time
if one has been received, or if one
has not been received, as close as
possible to the estimated time of
arrival as calculated from the filed
or amended (with ATC) estimated
time en route.
• (ii) If the clearance limit is not a fix
from which an approach begins,
leave the clearance limit at the
expect-further-clearance time if
one has been received, or if none
has been received, upon arrival
over the clearance limit, and
proceed to a fix from which an
approach begins and commence
descent or descent and approach
as close as possible to the
estimated time of arrival as
calculated from the filed or
amended (with ATC) estimated
time en route.
91.187 Operation under IFR in controlled
airspace: Malfunction reports.
• (a) The pilot in command of each aircraft
operated in controlled airspace under IFR
shall report as soon as practical to ATC any
malfunctions of navigational, approach, or
communication equipment occurring in flight.
• (b) In each report required by paragraph (a) of
this section, the pilot in command shall
include the—
• (1) Aircraft identification;
• (2) Equipment affected;
• (3) Degree to which the capability of the pilot
to operate under IFR in the ATC system is
impaired; and
• (4) Nature and extent of assistance desired
from ATC.
91.205 Powered civil aircraft with standard category U.S. airworthiness
certificates: Instrument and equipment requirements.
• (d) Instrument flight rules. For IFR flight, the • (4) Slip-skid indicator.
following instruments and equipment are • (5) Sensitive altimeter adjustable for
required: barometric pressure.
• (1) Instruments and equipment specified in
paragraph (b) of this section, and, for night • (6) A clock displaying hours, minutes, and
flight, instruments and equipment specified in seconds with a sweep-second pointer or
paragraph (c) of this section. digital presentation.
• (2) Two-way radio communication and • (7) Generator or alternator of adequate
navigation equipment suitable for the route capacity.
to be flown. • (8) Gyroscopic pitch and bank indicator
• (3) Gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator, except (artificial horizon).
on the following aircraft: • (9) Gyroscopic direction indicator (directional
• (i) Airplanes with a third attitude instrument gyro or equivalent).
system usable through flight attitudes of 360
degrees of pitch and roll and installed in
accordance with the instrument requirements
prescribed in 121.305(j) of this chapter; and
91.205 Powered civil aircraft with standard category U.S.
airworthiness certificates: Instrument and equipment
requirements.
• (e) Flight at and above 24,000 feet MSL
(FL 240). If VOR navigation equipment is
required under paragraph (d)(2) of this
section, no person may operate a U.S.-
registered civil aircraft within the 50
states and the District of Columbia at or
above FL 240 unless that aircraft is
equipped with approved DME or a
suitable RNAV system. When the DME or
RNAV system required by this paragraph
fails at and above FL 240, the pilot in
command of the aircraft must notify ATC
immediately, and then may continue
operations at and above FL 240 to the
next airport of intended landing where
repairs or replacement of the equipment
can be made.
91.215 ATC transponder and altitude
reporting equipment and use.
• (c) Transponder-on
operation. While in the airspace as
specified in paragraph (b) of this
section or in all controlled airspace,
each person operating an aircraft
equipped with an operable ATC
transponder maintained in
accordance with 91.413 of this part
shall operate the transponder,
including Mode C equipment if
installed, and shall reply on the
appropriate code or as assigned by
ATC.
91.215 ATC transponder and altitude
reporting equipment and use.
• (d) ATC authorized deviations. Requests for
ATC authorized deviations must be made to
the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the
concerned airspace within the time periods
specified as follows:
• (1) For operation of an aircraft with an
operating transponder but without operating
automatic pressure altitude reporting
equipment having a Mode C capability, the
request may be made at any time.
• (2) For operation of an aircraft with an
inoperative transponder to the airport of
ultimate destination, including any
intermediate stops, or to proceed to a place
where suitable repairs can be made or both,
the request may be made at any time.
91.411 Altimeter system and altitude
reporting equipment tests and inspections.
• (a) No person may operate an airplane, or • (2) Except for the use of system drain and
helicopter, in controlled airspace under alternate static pressure valves, following
IFR unless— any opening and closing of the static
• (1) Within the preceding 24 calendar pressure system, that system has been
months, each static pressure system, each tested and inspected and found to
altimeter instrument, and each automatic comply with paragraph (a), appendix E, of
pressure altitude reporting system has part 43 of this chapter; and
been tested and inspected and found to • (3) Following installation or maintenance
comply with appendices E and F of part on the automatic pressure altitude
43 of this chapter; reporting system of the ATC transponder
where data correspondence error could
be introduced, the integrated system has
been tested, inspected, and found to
comply with paragraph (c), appendix E, of
part 43 of this chapter.
91.411 Altimeter system and altitude
reporting equipment tests and inspections.
• (d) No person may operate an
airplane, or helicopter, in
controlled airspace under IFR at
an altitude above the maximum
altitude at which all altimeters
and the automatic altitude
reporting system of that
airplane, or helicopter, have
been tested.
91.413 ATC transponder tests and
inspections.
• (a) No persons may use an ATC • (b) Following any installation or
transponder that is specified in maintenance on an ATC
91.215(a), 121.345(c), or transponder where data
§135.143(c) of this chapter correspondence error could be
unless, within the preceding 24 introduced, the integrated
calendar months, the ATC system has been tested,
transponder has been tested inspected, and found to comply
and inspected and found to with paragraph (c), appendix E,
comply with appendix F of part of part 43 of this chapter.
43 of this chapter; and
PART 95—IFR ALTITUDES
• §95.1 Applicability.
• Designated Mountainous Areas
95.1 Applicability.
• (a) This part prescribes altitudes governing the operation of • (e) The MOCA assures obstruction clearance on an ATS route,
aircraft under IFR on ATS routes, or other direct routes for ATS route segment, or other direct route, and adequate
which an MEA is designated in this part. In addition, it reception of VOR navigation signals within 22 nautical miles
designates mountainous areas and changeover points. of a VOR station used to define the route.
• (b) The MAA is the highest altitude on an ATS route, or other • (f) The MRA applies to the operation of an aircraft over an
direct route for which an MEA is designated, at which intersection defined by ground-based navigation aids. The
adequate reception of VOR signals is assured. MRA is the lowest altitude at which the intersection can be
determined using the ground-based navigation aids.
• (c) The MCA applies to the operation of an aircraft
proceeding to a higher minimum en route altitude when • (g) The changeover point (COP) applies to operation of an
crossing specified fixes. aircraft along a Federal airway, jet route, or other direct
route; for which an MEA is designated in this part. It is the
• (d) The MEA is the minimum en route IFR altitude on an ATS point for transfer of the airborne navigation reference from
route, ATS route segment, or other direct route. The MEA the ground-based navigation aid behind the aircraft to the
applies to the entire width of the ATS route, ATS route next appropriate ground-based navigation aid to ensure
segment, or other direct route between fixes defining that continuous reception of signals.
route. Unless otherwise specified, an MEA prescribed for an
off airway route or route segment applies to the airspace 4
nautical miles on each side of a direct course between the
navigation fixes defining that route or route segment.
Designated Mountainous Areas
PART 97—STANDARD INSTRUMENT
PROCEDURES
• 97.1 Applicability.
• 97.3 Symbols and terms used
in procedures.
• 97.5 Bearings, courses, tracks,
headings, radials, miles.
• 97.20 General.
97.1 Applicability.
• (a) This part prescribes standard • (b) This part also prescribes
instrument approach procedures obstacle departure procedures
to civil airports in the United (ODPs) for certain civil airports in
States and the weather the United States and the
minimums that apply to landings weather minimums that apply to
under IFR at those airports. takeoffs under IFR at civil
airports in the United States.
97.3 Symbols and terms used in procedures.
• Aircraft approach category means • (1) Category A: Speed less than 91
a grouping of aircraft based on a knots.
speed of VREF, if specified, or if • (2) Category B: Speed 91 knots or
VREF is not specified, 1.3 Vso at the more but less than 121 knots.
maximum certificated landing
weight. VREF, Vso, and the • (3) Category C: Speed 121 knots or
maximum certificated landing more but less than 141 knots.
weight are those values as • (4) Category D: Speed 141 knots or
established for the aircraft by the more but less than 166 knots.
certification authority of the
country of registry. The categories • (5) Category E: Speed 166 knots or
are as follows— more.
• Approach procedure segments for which • (3) Intermediate approach is the segment
altitudes (minimum altitudes, unless between the intermediate fix or point and
otherwise specified) and paths are the final approach fix.
prescribed in procedures, are as follows— • (4) Final approach is the segment
• (1) Initial approach is the segment between the final approach fix or point
between the initial approach fix and the and the runway, airport, or missed
intermediate fix or the point where the approach point.
aircraft is established on the intermediate • (5) Missed approach is the segment
course or final approach course. between the missed approach point, or
• (2) Initial approach altitude is the altitude point of arrival at decision altitude or
(or altitudes, in high altitude procedure) decision height (DA/DH), and the missed
prescribed for the initial approach approach fix at the prescribed altitude.
segment of an instrument approach.
• Approach procedure segments for which • (3) Intermediate approach is the segment
altitudes (minimum altitudes, unless between the intermediate fix or point and
otherwise specified) and paths are the final approach fix.
prescribed in procedures, are as follows— • (4) Final approach is the segment
• (1) Initial approach is the segment between the final approach fix or point
between the initial approach fix and the and the runway, airport, or missed
intermediate fix or the point where the approach point.
aircraft is established on the intermediate • (5) Missed approach is the segment
course or final approach course. between the missed approach point, or
• (2) Initial approach altitude is the altitude point of arrival at decision altitude or
(or altitudes, in high altitude procedure) decision height (DA/DH), and the missed
prescribed for the initial approach approach fix at the prescribed altitude.
segment of an instrument approach.
97.5 Bearings, courses, tracks, headings,
radials, miles.
• (a) All bearings, courses, tracks, • (b) RVR values are stated in feet.
headings, and radials in this part Other visibility values are stated
are magnetic, unless otherwise in statute miles. All other
designated. mileages are stated in nautical
miles.
Instrument Cockpit Check
• Does all this stuff work before we go into the clouds?
• Compass Card: Readable, indicating deviation and date of revision
• Magnetic Compass: Full of Fluid, no leakage, indicates known heading
• Airspeed Indicator: compared with standby airspeed indicator, indicates 0 kts
• Attitude Indicator: Compared with Standby, indicates no more than 5 degrees of pitch and bank error during taxi, aligned
within 5 minutes
• Altimeter: compared with standby, indicates elevation of the airport within 75 feet of field elevation
• VSI: inidicates 0, open ALT Static and see a rise when opening your door.
• HDG: Aligned with the compass, indicates known, heading
• Digital Clock: Verify on map page, indicates correct zulu time
• Avionics: Test Button & Low Sensitivity
• GPS1: Database not expired, test COM1 & Nav1, RAIM check
• GPS2: Database not expired, test Com2 and Nav2
• Transponder: verify working
• Clock count up
• Alternate static source (blue): Turn on, shows slight climb, turn off shows slight descent
• Check autopilot ready on both autopilot and PFD
• ICP complete
X-Country Flight Planning
• 91.103 Preflight planning: AWxKRAFT
• Used preferred IFR routes if possible
• Found in back of chart supplement
• Make sure your aircraft qualifies for the route (for example, some routes are
only for turboprops)
• Determine altitude based off of course, MEA, or anything else that your route
of flight may require such as equipment limitations
• If using Victor Airways, make sure to account for VOR error (Found in Chart
Supplements).
• ½ the segment, make sure to include change over points if a C.O.P. isn’t specified.
Night Before X-C
Route Selection:
Reference the Airport Facility
Directory (A/FD) for low altitude
preferred IFR routes.
If there is no preferred IFR route

listed, refer to the low enroute chart to
plot the most efficient route to the
destination.
Night Before X-C
Copy route onto the Navigation Log

Night Before X-C
Utilizing an A/FD and/or approach

plate’s airport diagram determine the
following information:
Runway and taxi diagram:
Runway lengths
Types of IAP’s
Any other pertinent information
Night Before X-C
Frequencies Section
Departure Airport: utilize the following
publications to determine the
appropriate radio frequencies:
Instrument Approach Charts
Airport Facility Directory (AF/D)
Low Altitude Enroute Charts - overleaf
Night Before X-C
Frequencies Section
Enroute: To determine the appropriate
enroute frequencies, a pilot can refer to the:
Low Altitude Enroute Chart –
overleaf section
A/FD – Air Route Traffic Control
center section
Night Before X-C
Frequencies Section
Destination Airport: To determine the
frequencies that will be utilized of the
destination airport, the pilot should refer to the:
A/FD
Instrument Approach Charts
Low Altitude Enroute Chart - overleaf
Night Before X-C
FAA Flight Plan - Complete as much

of the flight plan as possible.
Day of X-C
Obtain Weather Briefing

The most common forms of weather
services that are utilized are:
Flight service station

Aviation applications like ForeFlight
Day of X-C
Some points to consider after obtaining

weather are:
Will weather conditions alter your proposed
route?
What is the weather at the destination airport?
Will I be required to file an alternate?
Day of X-C
Some points to consider after obtaining

weather are:
Where are the freezing levels?

How does your own experience and currency
level compare to the anticipated weather
conditions?
Day of X-C
Alternate Airport Requirements
Regulations FAR 91.169(c) require an

alternate airport to be filed unless the
destination has a (1) Standard Instrument
Approach procedure, and (2) is forecasted
to have a ceiling at least 2,000ft and a
visibility of at least 3 miles from 1 hour
before to 1 hour after your ETA.
Day of X-C
Alternate Airport Requirements
The standard alternate minimums for flight

planning purposes of an alternate airport are
a ceiling of 600ft and two miles visibility
for a precision approach. The standard
alternate minimums for a non-precision
approach are 800 feet ceilings and a
visibility of 2 miles.
Day of X-C
Altitude Section
While completing your flight planning, you
must select an appropriate cruising altitude.
Selection of the best cruising altitude
should consider:
IFR hemispheric cruising altitude
Published MEA Winds aloft
Turbulence and icing
Aircraft performance
Day of X-C
Complete Heading Information
Complete the heading section on the Nav
Log as you would on a VFR cross country.
Day of X-C
Complete TAS, GS and Distance
Information
Complete this information as was
performed for the VFR cross country.
Day of X-C
Complete ETE and Fuel Burn
Information
Complete this information as was
performed for the VFR cross country.
Day of X-C
Complete the Total Fuel Required
Compute the total fuel burned for the route and

add the fuel required to fly to the alternate.
FAR 91.167 fuel requirements for flights in
IFR conditions states that a pilot must have
enough fuel to fly to the first airport of
intended landing, then to the alternate and
then for 45 minutes.
ATC Clearances
• ATC system and IFR Procedures: the whole purpose is to provide for
safe separation and an orderly flow between aircraft within the
system.
• In order for this whole system to work, controllers need to know what
to expect from pilots
• Therefore, it depends on pilot compliance w/ standard procedures
ATC Clearances
• But what is this clearance could cause a problem?
• Then it’s the pilot’s responsibility to refuse a clearance if:
• 1.) It would cause the pilot to break a regulation
• 2.) Result in an unsafe operation
• Once you’ve accepted a clearance from ATC, DO NOT DEVIATE from it. (If
you go off and do whatever you feel like, how in the world will the
controller be able to separate traffic?)
• Once you’ve accepted an ATC clearance, Deviation is not permitted unless
(1) an amended clearance is received OR (2) in an Emergency.
• If you have a distress condition, the pilot should not hesitate to declare an
emergency and obtain an amended clearance.
• Now, if you’re on an Instrument Flight and you have an emergency that
causes you to deviate from a clearance – Notify ATC of deviation ASAP.
ATC Clearances
• Think of a clearance as a verbal agreement/contract b/t you and ATC
• One of the things the controller wants to make sure of is that you
understand the important parts of a clearance. So here’s what a
controller is going to expect for you to Read Back:
• Altitude Assignments
• Any vectors
• & any part requiring verification
ATC Clearances
• Let’s say the controller tells you to climb/descend to a different altitude.
He’s going to make assumptions about how fast you climb/descend. So,
what are they expecting?
• For Altitude changes of more that 1000’
• Climb/Descend as rapidly as practicable to +/- 1000’ of assigned altitude, then
climb/descend b/t 500-1500 fpm until assigned altitude.
• Ex: Let’s say you’re flying a jet capable of climbing 6000 fpm. ATC wants you to climb
at this rate until within 1000’, then you would slow too 500-1500 fpm so as not to
overshoot.
• “Descend at Pilot’s Discretion”:
• May begin descent whenever you choose
• Can level off at any intermediate altitude temporarily
• Once leaving an altitude, you may not return to it
Departure Procedures & Clearances
• Whenever you receive an IFR Clearance, it will follow this format
(CRAFT):
• Clearance Limit – is the fix, point, or location to which an a/c is cleared when
issued an air traffic clearance
• Routing
• Altitude
• Frequency
• Transponder Code
• In general, there are four options for departing on an IFR flight:
• SID
• ODP
• Radar Departure
• VFR Departure
• Instrument Departure Procedures are pre-planned IFR procedures which provide obstruction clearance from
the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure.
• There are 2 types: (1) ODP (2) SID
• ODP:
• Printed either textually or graphically
• Provide obstruction clearance and may be flown w/ out ATC Clearance
• Graphic ODPs have “Obstacle” printed in the title.
• SID:
• Always graphical
• Used for obstacle clearance and to reduce pilot/controller workload by standardizing flow of traffic
• Must be assigned by ATC
• Pilot Nav SIDs – pilot navigates SID by charted routes w/ minimal radio instruction
• Vector SIDs - Navigation based on Radar Vectors. Routes not printed on charts.
• If you don’t want to fly a SID, make sure to put “No SIDs” in the Remarks section of your flight plan.
• Obstacle Clearance is based off:
• Aircraft climbing at 200’/NM
• Climbing to 400 ft. before turning
• 35’ above departure end of the runway.
• 40:1 OIS: if no obstacles penetrate that slope, then no IFR DP’s are
published. If obstacles do penetrate, there will be procedures to use
in staying out of harm’s way.
• Obstacles located within 1 NM of DER and less than 200’ are called
Low Close In Obstacles. Pilots must avoid visually or ensure sufficient
climb capability.
• When operating from an airport without a control tower, a pilot may
call ATC and receive his “Clearance Void Time”.
• You cannot depart after your CVT
• Must notify ATC of your intentions, in not airborne, within 30 minutes
• Failure to contact ATC within 30 minutes after CVT results in S & R being
initiated.
• Other IFR traffic for that airport is suspended until after aircraft has contacted
ATC or 30 minutes after CVT.
• “Hold for Release” : ATC may issue HFR to delay an aircraft’s departure for
traffic management (wx, traffic, volume, etc)
• Pilot may not depart IFT until release time or additional instructions
• Pilot could take off VFR if possible though and try to pick up IFR clearance in air.
• “Release Time”: is a departure restriction issued to a pilot by ATC,
specifying earliest time an a/c may depart.
•
“Expect Departure Clearance Time”: The EDCT is the runway release time
assigned to an a/c included in the traffic management programs. Aircraft
are expected to depart no earlier than 5 min. before, and no later than 5
min. after the EDCT.
Enroute Procedures & Clearances
• Mandatory Reports Under IFR (MARVELOUSVFR500):
• Missed Approach
• Airspeed +/-10 kts OR 5% change of filed TAS
• Reaching a holding fix
• VFR on top
• ETA change +/- 3 mins. *
• Leaving a holding fix or pt
• Outer Marker*
• Unforecasted wx
• Safety of flight
• Vacating an altitude/FL
• Final approach fix *
• Radio/Nav failure
• Compulsory Reporting Points*
• 500 – Unable to climb/descend 500 fpm.
• (*Required only in Non-Radar environment)

• Position Reports @ compulsory reporting pts. or as requested by ATC
when not in radar contact (IPTATENR)
• Identification
• Position
• Time
• Altitude
• Type of Flight Plan
• ETA & Name of next reporting point
• Name only of the next succeeding reporting point along route of flight.
• Remarks
• Holds – used to maintain a position in space. (Not like a car where
you can just stop and pull over on the side of the road)
• Resemble a Racetrack pattern, with right hand turns as standard
• Holds can be published or unpublished
• If published, ATC will say... “Hold as Published, EFC…”
• If unpublished, ATC will say … Hold (N, NE, S, SE, etc) of Holding Fix on the
Radial (Bearing, airway, etc), Leg Length is DME or RNAV, Direction of Turns if
nonstandard (left-hand), EFC time
HOLDING
HOLDING
Adjust Outbound leg so Inbound leg
takes:
At or Below 14,000 ft MSL – 1 minute
Above 14,000 ft MSL 1.5 minutes
GPS – as specified.
Triple the wind correction on

outbound leg.
EFC time allows you to depart holding

fix at a definite time if you lose 2-way
radio communication.
• Cruise Clearance: For example – “ N216BD, Cruise 8,000”
• When ATC issues Cruise Clearance, the block of airspace between the
minimum IFR altitude in your clearance is yours to use.
• You can climb, descend, & level off at any intermediate altitude within the
block of airspace, all the way to your destination.
• Note: Once you report leaving a block of altitude during descent, you may not
return to that altitude without an ATC clearance.
• Also, Cruise Clearance = Cleared for the approach.
The MEA is the lowest published altitude between
radio fixes that ensures navigation signal coverage
and meets obstacle clearance requirements
between those fixes.
RNAV MEAs are depicted on some IFR en route
low altitude charts, allowing both RNAV and non-
RNAV pilots to use the same chart for instrument
navigation.
MRAs are determined by FAA flight inspection traversing an entire route of flight to
establish the minimum altitude the navigation signal can be received for the route
and for off-course NAVAID facilities that determine a fix.
When the MRA at the fix is higher than the MEA, an MRA is established for the fix
and is the lowest altitude at which an intersection can be determined.
An MAA is a published altitude representing the maximum usable altitude or flight
level for an airspace structure or route segment.
It is the highest altitude on a Federal airway, jet route, RNAV low or high route, or
other direct route for which an MEA is designated. Adequate reception of navigation
signals is assured.
The MOCA is the lowest published altitude in effect between fixes on VOR
airways, off-airway routes, or route segments that meets obstacle clearance
requirements for the entire route segment.
This altitude also assures acceptable navigational signal coverage only within
22 NM of a VOR.
An off-route obstruction clearance altitude (OROCA) is an
off-route altitude that provides obstruction clearance with
a 1,000-foot buffer in non-mountainous terrain areas, and a
2,000-foot buffer in designated mountainous areas. This
altitude doesn't guarantee signal coverage from ground-
based NAVAIDs, ATC radar, or communications coverage.
An MCA is the lowest altitude at certain fixes at
which the aircraft must cross when proceeding in
the direction of a higher minimum en route IFR
altitude
MVAs are established for use by
ATC when radar ATC is exercised.
The MVA provides 1,000 feet of
clearance above the highest
obstacle in non-mountainous
areas and 2,000 feet above the
highest obstacle in designated
mountainous areas.
Because of the ability to isolate
specific obstacles, some MVAs
may be lower than MEAs,
MOCAs, or other minimum
altitudes depicted on charts for a
given location. While being radar
vectored, IFR altitude
assignments by ATC are normally
at or above the MVA.
The MIA for operations is prescribed in 14 CFR Part 91. These
MIAs are published on aeronautical charts and prescribed in 14
CFR Part 95 for airways and routes, and in 14 CFR Part 97 for
standard instrument approach procedures.
MSA (Minimum Sector Altitude)
MSA is the minimum safe altitude within a 25 nm (Nautical Mile)
radius of a navigational aid. MSA will give you 1000 ft separation from
the highest terrain within that sector. We normally see the MSA on
our Approach plates for runways.
Can we descend below MSA? Yes, provided we are under radar
control and we still remain above the radar altitudes. (Remember it is
still your responsibility to make sure you don’t fly into terrain!)
Minimum turning altitude (MTA) is a charted altitude providing
vertical and lateral obstruction clearance based on turn criteria over
certain fixes, NAVAIDs, waypoints, and on charted route segments.
Check out Page 2-38 in Chapter 2 of the FAA's Instrument
Procedures Handbook for more.
The turn area provides obstacle clearance for both turn anticipation
(turning prior to the fix) and flyover protection (turning after crossing
the fix). This does not violate the requirement to fly the centerline of
the airway. Many factors enter into the construction and application
of the turning area to provide pilots with adequate obstacle
clearance protection. These may include aircraft speed, the amount
of turn versus NAVAID distance, flight track, curve radii, MEAs, and
MTA
Arrival
• Arrival charts provide a smooth transition between the enroute
structure and busy terminal areas, simplifying complex clearances,
and providing an expected plan of action for both pilots and
controllers.
• S.T.A.R. : pre-planned IFR routes to transition from enroute to
terminal environment.
• Typically has transition routes that converge into a fix/navaid where
the arrival begins (and after which the STAR is named)
• Transitions are heavy dashed lines on the chart, whereas the arrival route is a
heavy solid line.
• Not drawn to scale.
Arrival
• “Cleared Arrival” – fly the route , but not the altitudes (lateral
clearance, and speed restrictions still apply)
• “Descend Via” – fly the route and published altitudes. Also, once you
receive a “descend via” clearance, you can begin descent at your
discretion to the altitudes published for the next waypoint on the
STAR.
• Comply with lateral path
• Comply with speed restrictions
• Comply with published altitudes
Approaches
• IAP: you use a standard IAP published on an instrument approach
chart to descend safely by reference to instruments from the enroute
altitude to a point near the destination runway from which you can
make a landing visually.
Approach
• Approach Procedure Types
• Precision Approach – lateral and vertical guidance (in the form of a glideslope)
• Most accurate
• ILS
• MLS
• PAR
• GLS
• TLS
• APV – Approaches with vertical guidance
• Provides lateral and vertical guidance (in form a glidepath display)
• Doesn’t meet criteria to be classified as a precision approach. A precision app. carries a lot of
documentation, time, and cost to be classified as precision, so FAA & ICAO created APVs to
get around this.
• RNAV (LPV, LNAV-VNAV, baro-VNAV
• LDA w/ a glideslope.
Approach
Approach
Approach
• Non-precision Approaches – lateral course guidance only
• VOR
• NDB
• RNAV ( LNAV & LNAV + V) ( LNAV + V is just an LNAV with advisory vertical
guidance. You fly the LNAV minimums. The advisory vertical guidance is just a
nice feature to have on an LNAV approach)
• LOC
• LDA – Localizer Type Directional Aide. Identical to a localizer, but is not aligned
w/ runway.
• SDF – Simplified Directional Facility. Width 6-12 degrees. May or may not be
aligned with the runway.
• APR - Approach surveillance radar
Approach
• Approach Segments: may be divided into as many as 4 segments
• (1) Initial (2)Intermediate (3)Final (4)Missed Approach
• Initial approach segment – aligns airplane with approach course
• Intermediate approach segment – primarily to position the airplane
for final descent to the airport.
• Final approach segment – allows you to navigate safely to a point
from which you can continue approach to landing
• Missed approach segment – to navigate from the missed approach
point to a point where you can try another approach or continue to
another airport.
Approach
• Altitude and Heights
• Airport Elevation – Highest point of an airport’s useable runway (MSL)
• TDZE – Touchdown Zone Elevation – highest elevation in 1st 3000’ of runway
• Threshold Crossing Height (TCH) – is the AGL height your G.S. antenna will
cross the threshold if you maintain glideslope
• DA – altitude at which you must decide whether to continue the approach or
perform a missed approach
• MDA – is the minimum altitude you may descend until you either identify the
runway environment, or lacking the required visual references, perform a
missed approach at the MAP.
Circling Approach
• Circling is a maneuver conducted towards the end of an instrument
approach.
• Pilots fly circling approaches when it’s not possible to do a straight in
approach to the runway after an instrument approach.
• Circling approaches are necessary for a variety of reasons. The most
common are strong tailwinds, obstacles, high descent angles and/or the
final approach segment exceeds 30 degrees from the approach runway.
• Example: You’re on an ILS approach to runway 02 but the winds are out of
the south at 15 knots. Only a fool would land with a 15-knot tailwind, so
instead of landing on runway 02 you enter an extended left downwind and
land on runway 18. That’s a circling approach!
• You are simply aligning the aircraft with the best runway after you break
out of the clouds on a normal instrument approach.
Circling-only approaches are rare, but you will run across them. You can easily spot them because they have a letter
after the type of approach.
Circling Approach
The example below is a VOR-A circling-only approach.
Circling-only approaches do not allow a straight in approach so you will only see circling minima.
Circling approaches are a last resort. You should choose a different approach whenever possible.
Sometimes, though, there aren’t any other options.
The Instrument Procedures Handbook explains the reasons for building circle to land only approaches:
•The final approach course alignment with the runway centerline exceeds 30°.
•The descent gradient is greater than 400 feet per nautical mile from the FAF to the threshold crossing height. When this
maximum gradient is exceeded, the circling only approach procedure may be designed to meet the gradient criteria
limits. This does not preclude a straight-in landing if a normal descent and landing can be made in accordance with the
applicable CFRs.
•A runway is not clearly defined on the airfield.
Circling Approaches
Circling Approaches
• Circling MDA provides 300’ of obstacle clearance
• You may not go down a category just by approaching at a slower than
recommended airspeed.
• Must have the runway of intended landing in sight at all times during the
circle (unless the inability to see an identifiable part of the airport results
only from a normal bank of the AC during a circling approach.)
• Going missed: Follow the missed approach instructions for the SIAP being
used or given by ATC
• To become established on the prescribed MACourse the pilot should make an initial
climbing turn towards the landing r’way and continue the turn until established on
the MACourse.
• (Remember – MA Procedures assume a 200’/NM climb gradient unless otherwise
published.)
Emergency Operations
• Lost Comms:
• If in VMC: remain VMC and land as soon as practicable; otherwise…
• Altitude to fly: fly the highest among:
• Minimum Altitude prescribed for IFR
• Expected
• Assigned (last altitude assigned by ATC)
• Route to Fly: A.V.E.F. - select route by the following order
• A – Assigned route; if none…
• V – Vectored (fly to the fix, route, airway last vectored); if none
• E- Expected Route by ATC; if none…
• F – Filed route
Emergency Ops
Emergency Operations
• Loss of Gyro ATT and heading indicator:
• Use your standby attitude indicator, compass (or digital compass on
the G 430), autopilot GPSS mode and altitude hold.
• Exit IMC as soon as possible
Emergency Ops
• Engine Failure during straight and level and turns:
• ABCD
• A – Airspeed = best glide
• B – Best Field
• C – Checklist: Engine Failure during flight, if time – Engine Airstart, Forced
Landing Checklist
• D – Declare an Emergency

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FAA Oral CFII

• TEAM: Transfer, Eliminate, Accept, Mitigate

• P: Alignment with lines of flux

• Difference in True North and Magnetic North

• Compass needle deflected by local

• As approach poles vertical component of

• Combination of all errors leads to oscillating

Rigidity in Space Precession

• Ground Stations monitor GPS signal

Reference: Instrument Flying Handbook

• There are supporting instruments

• effective November 26, 2018

does not hold an excess of 50 nautical miles

• (2) At or above 18,000 feet MSL,

If there is no preferred IFR route

Copy route onto the Navigation Log

Utilizing an A/FD and/or approach

FAA Flight Plan - Complete as much

Obtain Weather Briefing

Flight service station

Some points to consider after obtaining

Some points to consider after obtaining

Where are the freezing levels?

Regulations FAR 91.169(c) require an

The standard alternate minimums for flight

Compute the total fuel burned for the route and

• (*Required only in Non-Radar environment)

At or Below 14,000 ft MSL – 1 minute

Above 14,000 ft MSL 1.5 minutes

Triple the wind correction on

EFC time allows you to depart holding

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