ORTHOGONAL CUTTING MODEL AND FORCES

CALCULATIONS
THEORY OF METAL MACHINING
1. Overview of Machining Technology
2. Theory of Chip Formation in Metal
Machining
3. Force Relationships and the Merchant
Equation
4. Power and Energy Relationships in
Machining
5. Cutting Temperature
 Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common
feature of which is removal of material from a
starting workpart so the remaining part has the
desired geometry
Machining – material removal by a sharp cutting
tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
Abrasive processes – material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material
 Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of
work material to form a chip
 As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

(a) A cross‑sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
 Why Machining is Important
• Variety of work materials can be machined
– Most frequently used to cut metals
• Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
– Screw threads
– Accurate round holes
– Very straight edges and surfaces
• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
 Disadvantages with Machining
• Wasteful of material
– Chips generated in machining are wasted material, at least
in the unit operation
• Time consuming
– A machining operation generally takes more time to shape
a given part than alternative shaping processes, such as
casting, powder metallurgy, or forming
 Machining in Manufacturing
Sequence
• Generally performed after other
manufacturing processes, such as casting,
forging, and bar drawing
– Other processes create the general shape of the starting
workpart
– Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish,
and special geometric details that other processes cannot
create
 Speed and Feed
• Speed is the relative movement between tool
and w/p, which produces a cut

• Feed is the relative movement between tool

and w/p, which spreads the cut
 Machining Operations
• Most Important Machining Operations:
– Turning
– Drilling
– Milling
• Other Machining Operations:
– Shaping and Planing
– Broaching
– Sawing
 Turning

Single point cutting tool removes material from a

rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape

Three most common machining processes: (a) turning,

 Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a
rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges
 Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across work
to cut a plane or straight surface
 Two forms: peripheral (side) milling and face (end)
milling

(c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.

 Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Tools
– One dominant cutting edge
– Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
– Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
– More than one cutting edge
– Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
– Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge
tools
 Cutting Tools

(a) A single‑point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and
(b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting
edges.
Cutting Conditions in Machining
• Three dimensions of a machining
process:
– Cutting speed v – primary motion
– Feed f – secondary motion
– Depth of cut d – penetration of tool below
original work surface
• For certain operations, material
removal rate can be computed as
RMR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of
cut
 Cutting Conditions for Turning

Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.

 Roughing vs. Finishing
In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on the part, followed by one or two
finishing cuts
• Roughing - removes large amounts of material
from starting workpart
– Creates shape close to desired geometry, but leaves some
material for finish cutting
– High feeds and depths, low speeds
• Finishing - completes part geometry
– Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
– Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
 Machine Tools
A power‑driven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding
• Functions in machining:
– Holds workpart
– Positions tool relative to work
– Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that have been
set
• The term is also applied to machines that
perform metal forming operations
Chip Thickness Ratio
to
r 
tc
where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of
the chip prior to chip formation; and tc = chip
thickness after separation
• Chip thickness after cut is always
greater than before, so chip ratio
always less than 1.0
Determining Shear Plane Angle

tc
to
Determining Shear Plane Angle
 Based on the geometric parameters
of the orthogonal model, the shear
plane angle  can be determined
as:
r cos 
tan  
1  r sin

where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle

 Shear Strain in Chip Formation

Figure 21.7 Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted
as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the
plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to
derive strain equation.
 Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be
computed from the following equation,
based on the preceding parallel plate
model:
– = tan( - ) + cot 

where  = shear strain,  = shear plane

angle, and  = rake angle of cutting tool
 Forces Acting on Chip
 Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
 Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Forces in metal cutting:

(a) forces acting on the
chip in orthogonal cutting
 Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
 Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
◦ R' must be equal in magnitude to R
◦ R’ must be opposite in direction to R
◦ R’ must be collinear with R
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force
 F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
 Forces acting on the tool that can be
measured:
◦ Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Figure 21.10 Forces

in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing 3/e
 Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F

N

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:

  tan 
 Fs

Fn F

N
 R

N
 R

F
Ft
F

Fc

N
 F = Fc sin  + Ft cos 

F
Ft
F

Fc

N = Fc cos  - Ft sin 
 Fs

Fn F

N
 Fs

Fn
R

F
 Fs
Fc

Fn
R
Ft
F
 Fs = Fc cos  - Ft sin 

Fs
Fc

Fn
R
Ft
F

Fn = Fc sin  + Ft cos 
 Forces in Metal Cutting
• Thus equations can be derived to relate the
forces that cannot be measured to the forces
that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
• Based on these calculated force, shear stress
and coefficient of friction can be determined
Significance of Cutting forces
In the set of following force balance equations:-
F = Fcc sin  + Ftt cos  F = friction force; N = normal to chip force
N = Fcc cos  - Ftt sin Fcc = cutting force; Ftt = thrust force
Fss = Fcc cos  - Ftt sin  Fss = shear force; Fnn = normal to shear plane force
Fnn = Fc sin  + Ftt cos  Forces
Forces are
are presented
presented as
as function
function of
of
F
Fcc and
and Ftt because
because these
these can
can be
be
measured.
measured. Friction angle =
tan=  = F/N

Shear plane stress:

 = Fss/Ass

where
Ass = too w/sin
 Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
Fs
S
As

where As = area of the shear plane

t ow
As 
sin 

Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting

 Cutting forces given shear strength
Letting S = shear strength, we can derive the following
equations for the cutting and thrust forces*:

Fs = S As
Fc = Fs cos (cos ( 
Ft = Fs sin (cos ( 

* The other forces can be determined from the equations on the previous
slide.
 Machining example
In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10°, chip thickness before
cut is to = 0.02 in, and chip thickness after cut is tc = 0.045 in. The cutting
and thrust forces are measured at Fc = 350 lb and Ft = 285 lb while at a
cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine the machining shear strain, shear
stress, and cutting horsepower.
Solution (shear strain):
Determine r = 0.02/0.045 = 0.444
Determine shear plane angle from tan  = r cos /[1 – r sin]
tan  = 0.444 cos /[1 – 0.444 sin] =>  = 25.4°
Now calculate shear strain from  = tan(-) + cot 
 = tan(25.4 - 10) + cot 25.4 = 2.386 in/in answer!
 Machining example (cont.)
In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10°, chip thickness before
cut is to = 0.02 in, and chip thickness after cut is tc = 0.045 in. The cutting
and thrust forces are measured at Fc = 350 lb and Ft = 285 lb while at a
cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine the machining shear strain, shear
stress, and cutting horsepower.
Solution (shear stress):
Determine shear force from Fs = Fc cos  - Ft sin 
Fs = 350 cos 25.4 - 285 sin 25.4 = 194 lb
Determine shear plane area from As = to w/sin
As = (0.02) (0.125)/sin= 0.00583 in2
The shear stress is
 Machining example (cont.)
In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10°, chip thickness before
cut is to = 0.02 in, and chip thickness after cut is tc = 0.045 in. The cutting
and thrust forces are measured at Fc = 350 lb and Ft = 285 lb while at a
cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine the machining shear strain, shear
stress, and cutting horsepower.

Solution (cutting horsepower):

Determine cutting hp from hpc = Fc v/33,000
hpc = (350) (200)/33,000 = 2.12 hp answer!
 Formula Sheet

• Shear Plane Angle Ф = tan-1 [(r cos α )/(1 – r sin α)]

 Shear Strain  = tan( - ) + cot 
 Forces in Cutting:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Forces Fc and Ft in terms of Fs:
Fc = Fs cos (cos ( 
Ft = Fs sin (cos ( 
 Merchant Relation:

 Shear Stress:
 = Fs/As
where As = to w/sin
 Cutting Power:
P = V Fc / 33,000 hp (V in ft /s and Fc in lb)
P = V Fc / 1000 kW (V in m /s and Fc in N)
PG = Pc / E