Hydraulic Turbines

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Hydraulic Turbines

Turbines are devices that extract energy from a


flowing fluid.

The geometry of turbines is such that the fluid


exerts a torque on the rotor in the direction of its
rotation.

The shaft power generated is available to drive


generators or other devices.
The two basic types of hydraulic turbines(dynamic
type) are impulse and reaction.
For hydraulic impulse turbines, the pressure drop across the rotor is zero; all of the
pressure drop across the turbine stage occurs in the nozzle row.
Both the pressure drop across the bucket and the change in relative speed (i.e., fluid
speed relative to the moving bucket) of the fluid across the bucket are negligible. The
space surrounding the rotor is not completely filled with fluid. It is the impulse of the
individual jets of fluid striking the buckets that generates the torque. Suitable for high
heads & low flow rates.
Example: Pelton wheel
Reaction is related to the ratio of static pressure drop that occurs across the rotor to static
pressure drop across the turbine stage, with larger rotor pressure drop corresponding to
larger reaction.
For reaction turbines the rotor is surrounded by a casing (or volute), which is completely
filled with the working fluid. There is both a pressure drop and a fluid relative speed change
across the rotor. As for example in the radial-inflow turbine guide vanes act as nozzles to
accelerate the flow and turn it in the appropriate direction as the fluid enters the rotor.
Thus, part of the pressure drop occurs across the guide vanes and part occurs across the
rotor. Suitable for low head & large flow rates.
Example: Francis(radial or mixed flow), Kaplan(axial flow adjustable blade), propeller
turbine(axial flow fixed blade)
Pelton Wheel(impulse Turbine)
Francis turbine(Reaction turbine)
Pelton wheel Turbine

Usually the shaft of a Pelton wheel is horizontal, and then not more than two jets are used. If
the wheel is mounted on a vertical shaft a larger number of jets (up to six) is possible.

The nozzles, however, must never be spaced so closely that the spent fluid from one jet
interferes with another jet.

Because of the symmetry of the buckets, the side thrusts produced by the fluid in each
half should balance – although it is usual for small thrust bearings to be fitted on the
shaft to cope with lapses from this ideal.

The absolute velocity of the jet is determined by the head available at the nozzle, that
is, the gross head Hgr minus the head loss hf due to friction in the pipe-line.

The jet velocity V1 is given by where H represents the net head(H= H gr- hf).

The relative velocity W2 with which the fluid leaves the bucket is somewhat less than the
initial relative velocity W1. There are two reasons for this. First, although the inner surfaces
of the buckets are polished so as to minimize frictional losses as the fluid flows over them,
such losses cannot be entirely eliminated. Second, some additional loss is inevitable as the
fluid strikes the splitter ridge, because the ridge cannot have zero thickness. These losses of
mechanical energy reduce the relative velocity between fluid and bucket. We therefore write
W2 = kW1 where k is a fraction slightly less than unity.
Pelton wheel Turbine

Pelton wheel turbines operate most efficiently with a larger head and lower
flow rates.
Considering k=1, W1=W2
Theoretically maximum power
can be extracted when jet
deflection angle β is 180 deg.
In practice, however, the
deflection is limited to about 165◦
if the fluid leaving one bucket is
not to strike the back of the
following one.
Results in a relatively small
reduction in power(less than 2%).

The torque is maximum when the


wheel is stopped there is no
power under this condition.
On the other hand, the power
output is a maximum when
The energy arriving at the wheel is in the form of kinetic energy of the jet,
and its rate of arrival is given by . Therefore, the wheel efficiency,

Peak efficiency occurs at

For an actual Pelton wheel turbine, there are other losses besides that of above equation
mechanical friction(mechanical losses), aerodynamic drag on the buckets (windage
losses),friction along the inside walls of the buckets, nonalignment of the jet and bucket
as the bucket turns, back splashing, and nozzle losses. Even so, the efficiency of a well-
designed Pelton wheel turbine can approach 90 percent.

Moreover, as the losses due to bearing friction and windage increase rapidly with speed, the
peak of overall efficiency occurs when the ratio u/v1 (often termed the speed ratio) is slightly
less than the value of 0.5; the figure usually obtained in practice is about 0.46.
Governing mechanism in Pelton wheel by flow control

A Pelton wheel is almost invariably used to drive an electrical generator mounted


on the same shaft. It is designed to operate at the conditions of maximum
efficiency, and the governing of the machine must be such as to allow the
efficiency to be maintained even when the power demand at the shaft varies.

No variation of the angular velocity, and hence of bucket velocity u, can normally be
permitted(for this would alter the frequency of the electrical output)
The control must therefore be in the volume rate of flow Q, and yet there must be no change
in the jet velocity because that would alter the speed ratio u/v1 from its optimum value of
about 0.46.

Since Q = A v1 it follows that the control must be effected by a variation of the cross-sectional
area A of the jet. This is usually achieved by a spear valve in the nozzle. Movement of the
spear along the axis of the nozzle increases or decreases the annular area between the spear
and the housing.
Francis Turbine(Reaction Turbine( radial or mixed flow))

Reaction turbines are best suited for higher


flow rate and lower head situations.

The principal distinguishing features of a reaction


turbine, we recall, are that only part of the overall
head is converted to velocity head before the runner
is reached, and that the working fluid, instead of
engaging only one or two blades at a time (as in an
impulse machine), completely fills all the passages
in the runner. Thus the pressure of the fluid changes
gradually as it passes through the runner.
A Francis turbine comprises mainly the four
components:
(i) spriral casing,
(ii) guide vanes(wicket gates) & stay vanes,
(iii) runner blades,
(iv) draft-tube
The Francis turbine is particularly suitable for medium heads (i.e.
from about 15 m to 300 m) and overall efficiencies exceeding 90%
have been achieved for large machines.
Spiral Casing : Most of these machines have vertical shafts although some smaller machines of
this type have horizontal shaft. The fluid enters from the penstock (pipeline leading to the
turbine from the reservoir at high altitude) to a spiral casing which completely surrounds the
runner. This casing is known as scroll casing or volute. The cross-sectional area of this casing
decreases uniformly along the circumference to keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude
along its path towards the guide vane. This is so because the rate of flow along the fluid path in
the volute decreases due to continuous entry of the fluid to the runner through the openings of
the guide vanes or stay vanes.

Stay & Guide vanes : The basic purpose of the guide vanes or stay vanes is to convert a part
of pressure energy of the fluid at its entrance to the kinetic energy and then to direct the
fluid on to the runner blades at the angle appropriate to the design. Moreover, the guide
vanes are pivoted and can be turned by a suitable governing mechanism to regulate the
flow while the load changes.

Runner blades : The flow entry in the runner of a Francis turbine may be radial or mixed. The
flow is inward, i.e. from the periphery towards the centre. The height of the runner depends
upon the specific speed. The height increases with the increase in the specific speed. The main
direction of flow change as water passes through the runner and is finally turned into the axial
direction while entering the draft tube. The shape of the blades of a Francis runner is complex.
The exact shape depends on its specific speed. It is obvious from the equation of specific speed
that higher specific speed means lower head. This requires that the runner should admit a
comparatively large quantity of water for a given power output and at the same time the
velocity of discharge at runner outlet should be small to avoid cavitation.
Runner cont...

In a purely radial flow runner, as developed by James B. Francis, the bulk flow is in the radial
direction. To be more clear, the flow is tangential and radial at the inlet but is entirely radial
with a negligible tangential component at the outlet. The flow, under the situation, has to
make a 90o turn after passing through the rotor for its inlet to the draft tube. Since the flow
area (area perpendicular to the radial direction) is small, there is a limit to the capacity of this
type of runner in keeping a low exit velocity. This leads to the design of a mixed flow runner
where water is turned from a radial to an axial direction in the rotor itself. At the outlet of
this type of runner, the flow is mostly axial with negligible radial and tangential components.
Because of a large discharge area (area perpendicular to the axial direction), this type of
runner can pass a large amount of water with a low exit velocity from the runner. The
blades for a reaction turbine are always so shaped that the tangential or whirling component
of velocity at the outlet becomes zero.

The inlet blade angle    of a Francis runner varies  

and the guide vane angle from 


Degree of reaction

The change in pressure energy of the fluid in the rotor can be found out
by subtracting the change in its kinetic energy from the total energy
released. Therefore, we can write for the degree of reaction.
Draft tube
The draft tube is a conduit which connects the runner exit to the tail race where the water is
being finally discharged from the turbine. The primary function of the draft tube is to reduce the
velocity of the discharged water to minimize the loss of kinetic energy at the outlet. This permits
the turbine to be set above the tail water without any appreciable drop of available head.
Kaplan Turbine(Reaction Turbine( axial flow adjustable blades))

Higher specific speed corresponds to a lower head. This requires that the runner should
admit a comparatively large quantity of water. For a runner of given diameter, the maximum
flow rate is achieved when the flow is parallel to the axis. Such a machine is known as axial
flow reaction turbine. Between the guide vanes and the runner, the fluid in an axial turbine
turns through a right-angle into the axial direction and then passes through the runner.
The function of the guide vane is same as in case of
Francis turbine. Between the guide vanes and the
runner, the fluid in a propeller turbine turns through
a right-angle into the axial direction and then passes
through the runner. The runner usually has four or six
blades and closely resembles a ship's propeller.
Neglecting the frictional effects, the flow
approaching the runner blades can be considered to
be a free vortex with whirl velocity being inversely
proportional to radius, while on the other hand, the
blade velocity is directly proportional to the radius.
To take care of this different relationship of the fluid
velocity and the blade velocity with the changes in
radius, the blades are twisted. The angle with axis is
greater at the tip that at the root. The blade angles
may be fixed if the available head and the load are
both fairly constant, but where these quantities may
vary a runner is used on which the blades may be
turned about their own axes while the machine is
running. When both guide-vane angle and runner-
blade angle may thus be varied, a high efficiency can
be maintained over a wide range of operating
conditions. Such a turbine is known as a Kaplan
turbine after its inventor, the Austrian engineer Viktor
Kaplan (1876–1934).
Reaction Turbine efficiency

Hydraulic Efficiency
Hydraulic losses
1. Losses in scroll casing
2. Losses at the entry to the
runner blade due to non
tangential entry
3. Blade friction loss
4. Flow outlet from Runner
blade deviate from
Where, H = the net head. tangential
5. Losses in the draft tube
Mechanical efficiency 6. Draft tube Exit K.E. loss

Mechanical losses
1. Mechanical frictional losses
in bearings, and other solid
Overall efficiency contact points with relative
velocity.
In an axial-flow machine the fluid does not move radially, and so for a
particular radius u1 = u2 and the term (u12−u22) is zero.

In a radial or mixed flow machine, however, each of the terms in the expression is
effective. For a turbine, that is, a machine in which work is done by the fluid, the expression
above must be positive. This is most easily achieved by the inward-flow
arrangement.
Then u1 >u2 and,
since the flow passages decrease rather than increase in cross-sectional area, R2 usually
exceeds R1.
The contributions of the second and third brackets to the work done by the fluid are thus
positive.
Similarity laws and power specific speed
Particularly useful in showing the characteristics of turbines are results obtained under
conditions of constant rotational speed and head. For a particular machine and a
particular incompressible fluid, D and are constant. Then gH/ω2D2 is constant.

η is then simply a function of P, and the results may be presented in the forms shown
in Fig. below
For a turbine using a particular fluid the operating conditions are expressed by values of
ω, P and H. It is important to know the range of these conditions which can be covered
by a particular design (i.e. shape) of machine. Such information enables us to select the
type of machine best suited to a particular application, and serves as a starting point in
its design. We require, therefore, a parameter characteristic of all the machines of a
homologous series and independent of the size represented by D. A parameter involving
ω, P and H but not D is the dimensionless speed parameter Cω defined by

A particular value of the speed coefficient therefore relates all the combinations of ω, , P
and H for which the flow conditions are similar in the machines of that homologous
series.

Interest naturally centres on the conditions for which the efficiency is a maximum, so, in
calculating the value of the expression above, it is customary to use values of ω, P and H
that correspond to maximum efficiency.

Power specific speed=


The value of (or NP) obtained from a set of values of ω (or N), P and H indicates the
shape of a machine that meets those conditions.
The rotational speed was often expressed in non-SI units such as rev/s, denoted by
the symbol N. Hence it became common practice in industry to work with values of
NP1/2/H5/4.

When the site of the installation and the output required from a turbine are known,
the value of may be calculated and the type of machine best suited to these
conditions selected. For the principal types of turbine, experience has shown the
values in Table most suitable.
Figure indicates the variation of power specific speed with the shape
of the turbine runner.

For given values of H and P, ω increases with P. With the same peripheral runner
velocity, a larger value of ω implies a smaller value of D and so, in general, lower cost.
For this reason, where a choice lies between two machines of different power specific
speeds, the designer usually prefers that with the higher value. Machines of high
power specific speeds, however, are limited to low heads because of cavitation.
The performance characteristics of turbines

Although desirable, it is not always possible for a turbine to run at its maximum efficiency.
Interest therefore attaches to its performance under conditions for which the efficiency is less
than the maximum. In testing model machines it is usual for the head to be kept constant (or
approximately so) while the load, and consequently the speed, are varied. If the head is
constant then for each setting of the guide vane angle (or spear valve for a Pelton wheel) the
power output P, the efficiency η and the flow rate Q may be plotted against the speed ω as the
independent variable.
It is more useful, however, to plot dimensionless parameters

Thus one set of curves


is applicable not just to
the conditions of the
test, but to any
machine in the same
homologous series,
operating under any
head.
Often the D terms are omitted also, ω is replaced by N, and the
resulting ratios P/H3/2,Q/H1/2,N/H1/2 are then referred to as unit
power, unit flow and unit speed. Their numerical values correspond
respectively to the power, volume flow rate and speed obtainable if
the machine could be operated with unchanged efficiency under
one unit of head, for example, 1 m.)
For a reaction turbine, changes of load are dealt with
by alteration of the guide vane angle. Fig shows the
general effect of change of guide vane angle for a
machine of the Francis type or fixed-blade propeller
type. Only at the maximum efficiency point does the
direction of the relative velocity at inlet conform with
that of the inlet edges of the runner blades. At other
conditions these directions do not conform, and so
the fluid does not flow smoothly into the passages in
the runner. Instead, it strikes either the front or back
surfaces of the blades; considerable eddy formation
ensues and the consequent dissipation of energy
reduces the efficiency of the machine.

In the Kaplan turbine the runner blade angle


may be altered in addition to the guide vane
angle. Thus it is possible to match the
directions of the relative velocity at inlet edges
of the runner blades for a wide range of
conditions. In consequence, the part-load
efficiency of the Kaplan machine is superior to
that of other types.
A change of load also affects the conditions at outlet. A reduction in the rate of flow
through the machine results in a decreased value of R2. Consequently, if the blade velocity
u2 is unaltered, there is a departure from the ideal right-angled vector triangle at outlet
(see Fig. ); the resulting whirl component of velocity causes a spiral motion in the draft
tube and hence a reduction of the draft-tube efficiency. The possibility of cavitation
is also increased.
Cavitation in turbine

Since cavitation begins when the pressure reaches too low a value, it is likely to occur at points
where the velocity or the elevation is high, and particularly at those where high velocity and
high elevation are combined. In a reaction turbine the point of minimum pressure is usually at
the outlet end of a runner blade, on the leading side.
For the flow between such a point and the final discharge into the tail race
For cavitation not to occur pe must be greater than the vapour pressure of
the liquid, pv, that is

=Thoma’s cavitation parameter( )

If either z (the height of the turbine runner above the tail water surface) or H is increased, σ
is reduced. To determine whether cavitation is likely in a particular installation, the value of
σ may be calculated: if it is greater than the tabulated (empirical) value of σc for that
design of turbine, cavitation should not be experienced.

In practice the expression is used to determine the maximum elevation zmax of


the turbine above the tail water surface for cavitation to be avoided:
Figure shows that turbines of high power
specific speed have higher values of σc and so
they must be set at much lower elevations
than those of smaller power specific speed.
For a high net head H it might be necessary to
place the turbine below the tail water surface,
thus adding considerably to the difficulties of
construction and maintenance. This
consideration restricts the use of propeller
turbines to low heads
Governing of reaction turbine

Governing of Reaction Turbines Governing of reaction turbines is usually done by


altering the position of the guide vanes and thus controlling the flow rate by changing
the gate openings to the runner. The guide blades of a reaction turbine (Figure )
are pivoted and connected by levers and links to the regulating ring.
Two long regulating rods, being attached to the regulating ring at their one ends, are
connected to a regulating lever at their other ends. The regulating lever is keyed to a
regulating shaft which is turned by a servomotor piston of the oil

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