Introduction to mobile robots

Slides modified from

Maja Mataric’s CSCI445, USC

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Lecture Outline
 Introduction to mobile robots
 Sensors, sensor space
 State, state space
 Action/behavior, effectors, action
space
 The spectrum of control
 Reactive systems

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Alternative terms
 UAV: unmanned aerial vehicle
 UGV: unmanned ground vehicle
 UUV: unmanned undersea
(underwater) vehicle

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Anthropomorphic Robots


Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Animal-like Robots


Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Unmanned Vehicles


Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 What Makes a Mobile Robot?
 A robot consists of:
 sensors
 effectors/actuators
 locomotion system
 on-board computer system
controllers for all of the above

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 What Can be Sensed?
 depends on the sensors on the robot
 the robot exists in its sensor space:
all possible values of sensory readings
 also called perceptual space
 robot sensors are very different from
biological ones
 a roboticist has to try to imagine the
world in the robot’s sensor space

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 State
 a sufficient description of the system
 can be:
Observable: robot always knows its state
Hidden/inaccessible/unobservable: robot
never knows its state
Partially observable: the robot knows a
part of its state
Discrete (e.g., up, down, blue, red)
Continuous (e.g., 3.765 mph)

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Types of State
External state: state of the world
Sensed using the robot’s sensors
 E.g.: night, day, at-home, sleeping, sunny
 Internal state: state of the robot
 Sensed using internal sensors
 Stored/remembered
 E.g.: velocity, mood
 The robot’s state is a combination of its
external and internal state.
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 State and Intelligence
 State space: all possible states the
system can be in
 A challenge: sensors do not provide
state!
 How intelligent a robot appears is
strongly dependent on how much it can
sense about its environment and about
itself.

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Internal Models
 Internal state can be used to
remember information about the world
(e.g., remember paths to the goal,
remember maps, remember friends v.
enemies, etc.)
 This is called a representation or an
internal model.
 Representations/models have a lot to
do with how complex a controller is!
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Action/Actuation
 A robot acts through its actuators (e.g.
motors), which typically drive effectors
(e.g., wheels)
 Robotic actuators are very different
from biological ones, both are used for:
 locomotion (moving around, going places)
 manipulation (handling objects)
 This divides robotics into two areas
 mobile robotics
 manipulator robotics
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Action v. Behavior
Behavior is what an external observer
sees a robot doing.
 Robots are programmed to display
desired behavior.
 Behavior is a result of a sequence of
robot actions.
 Observing behavior may not tell us
much about the internal control of a
robot. Control can be a black box.
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Actuators and DOF
 Mobile robots move around using
wheels, tracks, or legs
 Mobile robots typically move in 2D (but
note that swimming and flying is 3D)
 Manipulators are various robot arms
 They can move from 1 to many D
 Think of the dimensions as the robot’s
degrees of freedom (DOF)

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Autonomy
 Autonomy is the ability to make one’s
own decisions and act on them.
 For robots, autonomy means the ability
to sense and act on a given situation
appropriately.
 Autonomy can be:
 complete (e.g., R2D2)
 partial (e.g., tele-operated robots)

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Control
 Robot control refers to the way in
which the sensing and action of a robot
are coordinated.
 The many different ways in which
robots can be controlled all fall along a
well-defined spectrum of control.

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Spectrum of Control


Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Control Approaches
 Reactive Control
 Don’t think, (re)act.
 Behavior-Based Control
 Think the way you act.
 Deliberative Control
 Think hard, act later.
 Hybrid Control
Think and act independently, in parallel.

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Control Trade-offs
 Thinking is slow.
 Reaction must be fast.
 Thinking enables looking ahead
(planning) to avoid bad solutions.
 Thinking too long can be dangerous
(e.g., falling off a cliff, being run over).
 To think, the robot needs (a lot of)
accurate information => world models.

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Reactive Systems
 Don’t think, react!
 Reactive control is a technique for
tightly coupling perception (sensing)
and action, to produce timely robotic
response in dynamic and unstructured
worlds.
 Think of it as “stimulus-response”.
 A powerful method: many animals are
largely reactive.
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Reactive Systems’ Limitations
 Minimal (if any) state.
 No memory.
 No learning.
 No internal models / representations of
the world.

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Reactive Systems
 Collections of sense-act (stimulus-
response) rules
 Inherently concurrent (parallel)
 No/minimal state
 No memory
 Very fast and reactive
 Unable to plan ahead
 Unable to learn
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Deliberative Systems
 Based on the sense->plan->act
(SPA) model
 Inherently sequential
 Planning requires search, which is
slow
 Search requires a world model
 World models become outdated
 Search and planning takes too long
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Hybrid Systems
 Combine the two extremes
 reactive system on the bottom
 deliberative system on the top
 connected by some intermediate layer
 Often called 3-layer systems
 Layers must operate concurrently
 Different representations and time-
scales between the layers
 The best or worst of both worlds?
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Behavior-Based Systems
 An alternative to hybrid systems
 Have the same capabilities
 the ability to act reactively
 the ability to act deliberatively
 There is no intermediate layer
 A unified, consistent representation
is used in the whole system=>
concurrent behaviors
 That resolves issues of time-scale
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 A Brief History
 Feedback control
 Cybernetics
 Artificial Intelligence
 Early Robotics

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Feedback Control
 Feedback: continuous monitoring of
the sensors and reacting to their
changes.
 Feedback control = self-regulation
 Two kinds of feedback:
 Positive
 Negative
 The basis of control theory

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 - and + Feedback
 Negative feedback
 acts to regulate the state/output of the
system
 e.g., if too high, turn down, if too low, turn up
 thermostats, toilets, bodies, robots...
 Positive feedback
 acts to amplify the state/output of the
system
 e.g., the more there is, the more is added
 lynch mobs, stock market, ant trails...
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Uses of Feedback
 Invention of feedback as the first
simple robotics (does it work with our
definition)?
 The first example came from ancient
Greek water systems (toilets)
 Forgotten and re-invented in the
Renaissance for ovens/furnaces
 Really made a splash in Watt's
steam engine
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Cybernetics
 Pioneered by Norbert Wiener (1940s)
 (From Greek “steersman” of steam engine)
 Marriage of control theory (feedback
information science and
control),
biology
 Seeks principles common to animals
and machines, especially for control
and communication
 Coupling an organism and its
environment (situatedness)
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 W. Grey Walter’s Tortoise
 Machina Speculatrix
 1 photocell & 1 bump
sensor, 1 motor
 Behaviors:
 seek light
 head to weak light
 back from bright light
 turn and push
 recharge battery


Introduction to Robotics
Reactive control © M. J. Mataric
 Turtle Principles
 Parsimony: simple is better (e.g., clever
recharging strategy)
 Exploration/speculation: keeps
moving (except when charging)
 Attraction (positive tropism):
motivation to approach light
 Aversion (negative tropism):
motivation to avoid obstacles, slopes
 Discernment: ability to distinguish
and make choices, i.e., to adapt
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 The Walter Turtle in Action
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=lLULRlmXkKo

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Braitenberg Vehicles
 Valentino Braitenberg (early 1980s)
 Extended Walter’s model in a series
of thought experiments
 Also based on analog circuits
 Direct connections (excitatory or
inhibitory) between light sensors and
motors
 Complex behaviors from simple
very mechanisms
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Braitenberg Vehicles
 Examples of Vehicles:

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Braitenberg Vehicles
 By varying the connections and
their strengths, numerous behaviors
result, e.g.:
 “fear/cowardice” - flees light
 “aggression” - charges into light
 “love” - following/hugging
 many others, up to memory and learning!

 Reactive control
 Later implemented on real robots
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Early Artificial Intelligence
 “Born” in 1955 at Dartmouth
 “Intelligent machine” would use
internal models to search for
solutions and then try them out (M.
Minsky) => deliberative model!
 Planning became the tradition
 Explicit symbolic representations
 Hierarchical system organization
 Sequential execution
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Artificial Intelligence (AI)
 Early AI had a strong impact on
early robotics
 Focused on knowledge, internal
models, and reasoning/planning
 Eventually (1980s) robotics developed
more appropriate approaches =>
behavior-based and hybrid control
 AI itself has also evolved...
 But before that, early robots used
deliberative
Introduction to Robotics
control © M. J. Mataric
 Early Robots: SHAKEY
 At Stanford
Research Institute
(late 1960s)
 Vision and contact
sensors
 STRIPS planner
 Visual navigation
in a special world
 Deliberative
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Early Robots: HILARE
LAAS in Toulouse,
France (late 1970s)
Video, ultrasound,
laser range-finder
 Still in use!
 Multi-level spatial
representations
 Deliberative ->
Hybrid Control
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Early Robots: CART/Rover
 Hans Moravec
 Stanford Cart
(1977) followed by
CMU rover (1983)
 Sonar and vision
 Deliberative control

Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric

 Robotics Today
 Assembly and manufacturing (most
numbers of robots, least autonomous)
 Materials handling
 Gophers (hospitals, security guards)
 Hazardous environments (Chernobyl)
 Remote environments (Pathfinder)
 Surgery (brain, hips)
 Tele-presence and virtual reality
 Entertainment
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Why is Robotics hard?
 Sensors are limited and crude
 Effectors are limited and crude
 State (internal and external, but
mostly external) is partially-
observable
 Environment is dynamic (changing
over time)
 Environment is full of potentially-
useful information
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric
 Key Issues
 Grounding in reality: not just
planning in an abstract world
 Situatedness (ecological dynamics):
tight connection with the environment
 Embodiment: having a body
 Emergent behavior: interaction with
the environment
 Scalability: increasing task and
environment complexity
Introduction to Robotics © M. J. Mataric