6.

6 Hormones, homeostasis and reproduction

Essential idea: Hormones are used when

signals need to be widely distributed.

Thyroxin is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland. It's

key role is in controlling the metabolism of cells. If affects
almost every physiological process in the body including
growth and development. Most hormones affect more
than one target tissue in more than one way.
Understandings
Statement Guidance
6.6.U1 Insulin and glucagon are secreted by β and α cells of
the pancreas respectively to control blood glucose
concentration.
6.6.U2 Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate
the metabolic rate and help control body temperature.
6.6.U3 Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and acts
on the hypothalamus of the brain to inhibit appetite.
6.6.U4 Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control
circadian rhythms.
6.6.U5 A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic
gonads to develop as testes and secrete testosterone.
6.6.U6 Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male
genitalia and both sperm production and development
of male secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty.
6.6.U7 Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal
development of female reproductive organs and female
secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.
6.6.U8 The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and The roles of FSH, LH, estrogen and
positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and progesterone in the menstrual cycle
pituitary hormones. are expected.
Applications and Skills
Statement Guidance
6.6.A1 Causes and treatment of Type I and Type II
diabetes.
6.6.A2 Testing of leptin on patients with clinical obesity
and reasons for the failure to control the disease.
6.6.A3 Causes of jet lag and use of melatonin to
alleviate it.
6.6.A4 The use in IVF of drugs to suspend the normal
secretion of hormones, followed by the use of
artificial doses of hormones to induce
superovulation and establish a pregnancy.
6.6.A5 William Harvey’s investigation of sexual William Harvey failed to solve the mystery of
reproduction in deer. sexual reproduction because effective
microscopes were not available when he was
working, so fusion of gametes and subsequent
embryo development remained undiscovered.
6.6.S1 Annotate diagrams of the male and female
reproductive system to show names of structures
and their functions.
 6.6: Hormones, homeostasis,
reproduction
Nature of science: Developments in scientific research follow improvements in apparatus—
William Harvey was hampered in his observational research into reproduction by lack of
equipment. The microscope was invented 17 years after his death. (1.8)

Understandings:
• Insulin and glucagon are secreted by β and α cells of the pancreas respectively to control blood
glucose concentration.
• Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate the metabolic rate and help control body
temperature.
• Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and acts on the hypothalamus of the brain to inhibit
appetite.
• Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian rhythms.
• A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes and secrete
testosterone.
• Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and both sperm production and
development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.
• Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of female reproductive organs and female
secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.
• The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian
and pituitary hormones.
 6.6: Hormones, homeostasis,
reproduction
Nature of science: Developments in scientific research follow improvements in apparatus—
William Harvey was hampered in his observational research into reproduction by lack of
equipment. The microscope was invented 17 years after his death. (1.8)

Applications and skills:

• Application: Causes and treatment of Type I and Type II diabetes.
• Application: Testing of leptin on patients with clinical obesity and reasons for the failure to control
the disease.
• Application: Causes of jet lag and use of melatonin to alleviate it.
• Application: The use in IVF of drugs to suspend the normal secretion of hormones, followed by the
use of artificial doses of hormones to induce superovulation and establish a pregnancy.
• Application: William Harvey’s investigation of sexual reproduction in deer.
• Skill: Annotate diagrams of the male and female reproductive system to show names of structures
and their functions.

Guidance:
• The roles of FSH, LH, estrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle are expected.
• William Harvey failed to solve the mystery of sexual reproduction because effective microscopes
were not available when he was working, so fusion of gametes and subsequent embryo
development remained undiscovered.
The Endocrine System
A stimulus is received and processed.
Hormones are secreted directly into the blood.
They are carried to the target tissues (the place of intended action).
The action of the hormone changes the condition of the tissue.
This change in monitored through feedback.
Most hormonal change results in negative feedback.

Key endocrine glands:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The Endocrine System
A stimulus is received and processed.
Hormones are secreted directly into the blood.
They are carried to the target tissues (the place of intended action).
The action of the hormone changes the condition of the tissue.
This change in monitored through feedback.
Most hormonal change results in negative feedback.

Key endocrine glands:

1. Pineal gland
2. Pituitary gland
3. Thyroid gland
4. Thymus
5. Adrenal gland
6. Pancreas
7. Ovary (female)
8. Testes (male)
6.6.U1 Insulin and glucagon are secreted by β and α cells of the pancreas respectively to control blood glucose
concentration.

http://medmovie.com/portfolio-item/diabetes/
6.6.U1 Insulin and glucagon are secreted by β and α cells of the pancreas respectively to control blood glucose
concentration.
6.6.A1 Causes and treatment of Type I and Type II diabetes.
6.6.U2 Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate the metabolic rate and help control body
temperature.

Thyroxin
Produced by: thyroid gland
Targets: most body cells
Effects:
• increases metabolic rate / rate of
protein synthesis
• increases heat production (e.g.
increased respiration)
6.6.U3 Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and acts on the hypothalamus of the brain to inhibit appetite.

Leptin
Produced by: adipose cells (fat storage cells)
Targets: appetite control center of the
hypothalamus (in brain)

Effects:
An increase in adipose tissue increases leptin secretions into the blood,
causing appetite inhibition and hence reduced food intake.
6.6.A2 Testing of leptin on patients with clinical obesity and reasons for the failure to control the disease.

Leptin treatment for obesity

1949 Scientists discovered the ob/ob or
obese mouse. It is a mutant mouse that eats It was found that obese mice possess two
excessively and becomes profoundly obese. recessive alleles and consequently do not
produce any leptin.

Obese mice treated with

leptin saw large losses
of weight

Clinical trials were carried out to see if the effect was similar, but trials failed:
• Most people have naturally high levels of leptin
• If linked to leptin, obesity in people is due to resistance, of the appetite control
center, to leptin
• Very few patients in the clinical trial experienced significant weight loss
• Many patients experienced side-effects such as skin irritations
6.6.U4 Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian rhythms.
6.6.A3 Causes of jet lag and use of melatonin to alleviate it.

Melatonin
Produced by: pineal gland in darkness
Targets: pituitary and other glands
Effects:
synchronization of the circadian rhythms including
sleep timing and blood pressure regulation

Jet lag is a condition caused by travelling rapidly between time zones. Symptoms
often experienced are sleep disturbance, headaches, fatigue, irritability. Symptoms
usually fade after a few days.

Jet lag is caused by the pineal gland

continuing to set a circadian rhythm for
the point of origin rather than the current
time zone.

Taking melatonin close to the sleep time of

the destination can alleviate symptoms.
6.6.U5 A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes and secrete testosterone.

Sex determination
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in
diploid somatic cells (n=2).

22 pairs of these are autosomes, which are

homologous pairs.

One pair is the sex chromosomes.

XX gives the female gender, XY gives male.

SRY
The X chromosome is much larger than the Y.
X carries many genes in the non-homologous
region which are not present on Y.

The presence and expression of the SRY gene

on Y leads to male development.

Chromosome images from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_chromosome

6.6.U5 A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes and secrete testosterone.

Sex determination
In embryos the first appearance of the
gonads is essentially the same in the
two sexes. Gonads could become either
ovaries or testes.

If present, the SRY gene encodes for a

protein known as testis determining
factor (TDF). TDF is a DNA binding SRY
protein which acts as a transcription
factor promoting the expression of
other genes.

In the presence of TDF the gonads

become testes. In the absence of TDF
the gonads become ovaries and the
developing fetus becomes female.
6.6.U6 Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and both sperm production and
development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.

Testosterone
The testes develop from the
embryonic gonads when the the
embryo is becoming a fetus.

The testes secrete

testosterone which
causes the male
genitalia to develop.
At puberty the secretion of testosterone
increases causing:
• The primary sexual characteristic of sperm
production in the testes
• Development of secondary sexual
characteristics such as enlargement of the
penis, growth of pubic hair and deepening of
the voice
6.6.U7 Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of female reproductive organs and female
secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.

Estrogen and progesterone

In the absence of fetal testosterone
Estrogen and progesterone and the presence of maternal
are present. At first they are estrogen and progesterone, female
secreted by the mother’s reproductive organs develop (ovaries
ovaries and later by her develop from the embryonic gonads)
placenta. due to:
• estrogen and progesterone
• No testosterone

At puberty the secretion of estrogen and

progesterone increases causing:
• Primary sexual characteristic of egg
release
• Development of female secondary
sexual characteristics such as
enlargement of the breasts and growth
of pubic hair
6.6.S1 Annotate diagrams of the male and female reproductive system to show names of structures and their
functions.
Can you label and annotate the diagram of the female reproductive system?
6.6.S1 Annotate diagrams of the male and female reproductive system to show names of structures and their
functions.
Can you label and annotate the diagram of the female reproductive system?
a. uterus
• Provides protection, nutrients and waste removal
for the developing fetus
• Muscular walls contract to aid birthing process
b. fallopian tube (oviduct)
• Connects the ovary to the uterus
• Fertilisation of the egg occurs here
c. ovary
• (meosis) eggs stored, develop and mature
• Produced estrogen and progesterone
d. endometrium (lining of the uterus)
• develops each month in readiness for the
implanation of a fertilised egg
• (site of implantation becomes the placenta)
e. cervix f. vagina
• Muscular opening/entrance to the uterus • Accepts the penis during sexual intercourse and
• Closes to protect the developing fetus and opens sperm are recevied here
to form the birth canal • With the cervix forms the birth canal
g. kidney h. ureter
i. bladder j. urethra
6.6.S1 Annotate diagrams of the male and female reproductive system to show names of structures and their
functions.
Can you label and annotate the diagram of the male reproductive system?
6.6.S1 Annotate diagrams of the male and female reproductive system to show names of structures and their
functions.
Can you label and annotate the diagram of the male reproductive system?
a. Vas deferens (sperm duct)
• carries sperm to the penis during ejaculation
b. Prostate gland
• Adds alkaline fluids that neutralize the vaginal
acids
c. urethra
• Delivers semen during ejaculation and urine
during excretion
d. Penis/erectile muscle
• Muscles become erect to penetrate the vagina
during sexual intercourse
• Delivers sperm to the top of the vagina
e. Seminal vesicle f. epididymis
• adds nutrients including fructose sugar for • Sperm mature here and become able to move
respiration • Sperm stored awaiting ejaculation
• Adds mucus to protect sperm
g. testis (pl. testes) h. scrotum
• Produces (millions) of sperm (every day) • Protects and holds the testes outside the body (to
• Produces testosterone maintain a lower optimum temperature for sperm
production)
6.6.U8 The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and
pituitary hormones.

Click on the animation above to go to watch

the graph form (APBI Schools.org.uk)
Sex Hormones – The Menstrual Cycle
6.6.U8 The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and
pituitary hormones.
6.6.U8 The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and
pituitary hormones.

More Menstrual Cycle Animations

Video and doctors’ advice from NHS UK: http://course.zju.edu.cn/532/study/theory/2/Genital%20syste

http://www.nhs.uk/Video/Pages/Menstrualcycleanimation.aspx m/Menstrual%20cycle.swf

How does the contraceptive pill work?

 this site has a good comparison of the

regular menstrual cycle and the cycle with
the influence of contraceptive pills.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pill/sfeature/sf_cycle.swf
6.6.U8 The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and
pituitary hormones.
6.6.U8 The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and
pituitary hormones.
6.6.U8 The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and
pituitary hormones.

Explain the role of hormones in the regulation of the menstrual cycle (8 marks)
Key Hormones in IB Biology can you outline their roles?

Insulin Lowers blood glucose concentration – converts glucose to glycogen for storage
in the liver
Glucagon Raises blood glucose concentration – converts glycogen, in the liver, to glucose

Leptin inhibits appetite

Thyroxin Regulates the metabolic rate and helps to control body temperature

Melatonin controls circadian rhythms

Testosterone Pre-natal development of male genitalia, sperm production, development of

male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.
FSH Stimulates the growth and development of ovarian follicles (bodies containing
eggs).
LH Triggers ovulation, the release of the oocyte (egg) from the ovary

Pre-natal development of female reproductive organs and female secondary

Estrogen
sexual characteristics during puberty. Causes the uterine lining to thicken.

Progesterone Pre-natal development of female reproductive organs and female secondary

sexual characteristics during puberty. Maintains the lining of the uterus.
IVF is often used to overcome
infertility caused by blocked
Fallopian tubes. Dye in the
pelvic cavity
On the right is a special x-ray
called a hydrosalpingogram. Uterus

A dye is infused through the

cervix into the uterus and from
there it flows through the
fallopian tubes and into the
pelvic cavity. Fallopian
tube filled
with dye Tube administering
This woman is all clear, you can
dye via vagina
see the swirls of dye coming out
the ends of her tubes
 Other causes of infertility:
Female:
• Ova not maturing or being released
• Abnormality in uterus prevents
implantation
• Antibodies in cervical mucus impair
sperm

Male
• Unable to achieve an erection or normal
ejaculation
Two tailed sperm,
• Low sperm count or sperm are
unable to swim abnormal with low motility
• Blocked vas deferens
Introduction to In vitro fertilization (IVF)

http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animatio
ns/content/invitrofertilization.html
6.6.A4 The use in IVF of drugs to suspend the normal secretion of hormones, followed by the use of artificial
doses of hormones to induce superovulation and establish a pregnancy.

Hormonal treatments involved in IVF

Down-regulation is the first step in IVF is the shutting down of the menstrual cycle, by stopping secretion
of the pituitary and ovarian hormones. The process takes about two weeks and allows better control of
superovulation. Down-regulation is done with a drug, commonly in the form of a nasal spray.

Next superovulation collects multiple eggs from the woman. High doses of FSH are injected over
approximately a ten day period to stimulate the development of multiple follicles (the developing
egg and their surrounding cells). When follicles reach 15-20mm in diameter an injection of HCG is
given to start maturation process. Approximately 36 hours later, under a general anesthetic,
follicles (typically 8 – 12) are collected from the ovaries.

Prepared eggs (removed from the follicles) are combined with sperm in sterile conditions.
Successfully fertilized eggs are then incubated before implantation.

For approximately two weeks before implantation the woman takes progesterone (which maintains
the endometrium), usually in the form of a suppository, to aid implantation. This treatment is
continued until pregnancy test, and if positive, until 12 weeks of gestation.

As the natural success rate of implantation is around 40% usually two or three blastocysts (growing fertilized egg) are
implanted. As a consequence the chances of IVF treatment leading to multiple pregnancies are high.
6.6.A4 The use in IVF of drugs to suspend the normal secretion of hormones, followed by the use of artificial
doses of hormones to induce superovulation and establish a pregnancy.

Multiple pregnancies through IVF

Probability of multiple pregnancies is much higher as a result of IVF than through unassisted conception.

Country / Twinning rate

Region before 2000
Central Africa 1.8%
Asia 0.8%
England 1.4%
Benin 4.0%

Question from last class: what is the rate of natural conception Number Chance of
when timing intercourse to achieve pregnancy? of Cycles pregnancy
1 38%
3 68%
6 81%
12 92%
6.6.A4 The use in IVF of drugs to suspend the normal secretion of hormones, followed by the use of artificial
doses of hormones to induce superovulation and establish a pregnancy.

Why is multiple pregnancy a concern?

Preterm labor and birth more than 60% of twins are born premature.
• Underdeveloped organs and systems
• Health complications
• Risk of death; potential to need care of Neonatal Intensive Care unit

Read about additional risks here

6.6.A5 William Harvey’s investigation of sexual reproduction in deer.

William Harvey’s investigation of sexual reproduction

‘seed and soil’ theory of Aristotle states that the male produces a
seed which forms an egg when mixed with menstrual blood. The
egg then develops into a fetus inside the mother.

Harvey studied animal reproduction,

particularly in chickens and deer. He
dissected female deer after mating to
observe changes in the sexual organs
and found none.

Harvey came to understand that menstrual

blood did not contribute to the formation of a
fetus (true), putting Aristotle's idea to rest.

He also questioned the direct role of semen in

reproduction (false).
Nature of science: Developments in scientific research follow improvements in apparatus - William Harvey was hampered
in his observational research into reproduction by lack of equipment. The microscope was invented 17 years after his
death. (1.8)

William Harvey’s investigation of sexual reproduction

His findings, both true and false, are based

on a misinterpretation of insufficient data.

His biggest problem was that without microscopes

(invented 17 years after his death) that sperm, eggs
and embryos are too small to observe.
Data-based questions, textbook pg. 331
Data-based questions, textbook pg. 338
End of topic
questions,
textbook pg. 341
End of topic
questions, textbook
pg. 342