Introduction to Reservoir

Stimulation

Kellyville Training Center

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Well Stimulation
Stimulation is a chemical or mechanical method of increasing flow capacity to a well.

 Dowell Schlumberger is mainly concerned with three methods of stimulation:

 1. Wellbore Clean-up : “ Fluids not injected into formation”

• a. Chemical Treatment
• b. Perf Wash
 2. Matrix Treatment : “ Injection below frac pressure”
• a. Matrix Acidizing
• b. Chemical Treatment
 3. Fracturing “ Injection above frac pressure”
• a. Acid Frac
• b. Propped Frac

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Stimulation Techniques
 Restores Flow Capacity:
• Wellbore Clean-up
• Matrix Treatment

These procedures are performed below fracture pressure.

 Create New Flow Capacity:

• Hydraulic Fracturing (Acid and Sand)

These procedures are performed above fracture pressure.

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Areas Where Reduction in Flow Capacity May Occur
 1. Wellbore:
• Scale Damage
• Sand Fill
• Plugged Perforations
• Paraffin Plugging
• Asphalt Deposits
• Etc.

 2. Critical Matrix:
• Drilling Mud Damage
• Cement Damage
• Completion Fluids
• Production
• Native Clays/Fines

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WELLBORE

 Primary Purpose :
Restore flow capacity by removing restrictive damage to
fluid flow in the wellbore.

 Methods :
• Mechanical
• Chemical Treatment
• Acidizing Treatment

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Critical Matrix
 What is It?
• The area of formation that is 3' to 5' from the wellbore.
 Why is it critical?
r % Pressure Drop
(Drainage Radius) P (psi) P/ft (Pe - P) (Pe - Pwf) * 100

(Pe) 2,000 ft 5,000 0.07 psi/ft 0

1,000 ft 4,934 2.5
100 ft 4,719 10.8
50 ft 4,654 1.3 psi/ft 13.3
20 ft 4,568 16.6
10 ft 4,503 6.5 psi/ft 19.0
5 ft 4,439 21.5
3 ft 4,391 23.3
2 ft 4,000 850 psi/ft 24.8
1 ft 3,150 27.3
(Pwf) 0 ft 2,000 1,150 psi/f 100

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Major Goals of Matrix Treatment

 1. Restore Natural Permeability

• By Treating the Critical Matrix

 2. Minor Stimulation

 3. Leave Zone Barrier Intact

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Matrix Acidizing
 1. Sandstone:
• Major Effects:

Dissolves/Disperses Damage

Restores Permeability
• Minor Effects:

Minor Stimulation

 2. Limestone:
• Major Effects:

Enlarge Flow Channels/Fractures

Disperse Damage by Dissolving Surrounding Rock

Creation of Highly Conductive Wormholes

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Applications For Matrix Treatment

 High Permeability Formation with Damage.

 Unproppable Formations.

 Treating Limitations.

 Thick Zones.

 To Supplement Fracturing.

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Low Permeability Reservoir
 Increase well productivity by creating a highly conductive path
compared to the reservoir permeability.

Damage

XL = Fracture half length

XL
 The fracture will extend through the damaged near wellbore area.
 The fracture size is limited to two criteria :
• Drainage Radius
• Cost
 Fracturing is : Pumping fluid into the formation above fracture pressure.

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Darcy’s Equation

Oil Well : Gas Well :

kh (P e - P wf) kh (Pe 2 - P wf2 )

q= q=
141.2 µ (In rrw
e + S)
1424 µzT (In rrw
e
+ S)

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 Skin (s)
 The total Skin (ST) is the combination of mechanical and pseudo-skins. It
is the total skin value that is obtained directly from a well-test analysis.

 Mechanical Skin:
• Mathematically defined as an infinitely thin zone that creates a steady-
state pressure drop at the sand face.
• S>0 Damaged Formation
• S=0 Neither damaged nor stimulated
• S<0 Stimulated formation

 Pseudo Skin:
• Includes situations such as fractures, partial penetration, turbulence,
and fissures.
 The Mechanical Skin is the only type that can be removed by stimulation.

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Skin Example
 Pseudo Skin:
• Producing at high rates --> turbulence
• Collapsed tubing, perforations
• Partial penetration / Partial perforation
• Low Perforation Density (Shots/ft)
• Etc.

 Formation Damage:
• Scales
• Organic/Mixed Deposits
• Silts & Clays
• Emulsions
• Water Block
• Wettability Change

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 Example
 An oil well produces 57 B/D under the following reservoir and producing
conditions:
k = 10 md
h = 50 ft
ßo = 1.23 res bbl/stb
µo = 0.6 cp
Pr = 2,000 psi
Pwf = 500 psi
rw = .33 ft
re = 1,320 ft

 What is the Skin Factor?

 Is there potential for Stimulation?

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INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX
TREATMENT

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Formation Damage

 Damage Definition :

• Partial or complete plugging of the near wellbore area

which reduces the original permeability of the formation.

• Damage is quantified by the skin factor ( S ).

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Types of Formation Damage
 Emulsions

 Wettability Change

 Water Block

 Scale Formation

 Organic Deposits

 Mixed Deposits

 Silt & Clay

 Bacterial Slime

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Areas of Damage

Tubing Gravel Pack Perforations Formation

Scales
Organic deposits
Silicates, Aluminosilicates
Emulsion
Water block
Wettability change

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 Emulsions
 Definition:
• Formed by invasion of filtrates into oil zones or mixing of oil-based filtrates with
formation brines.
• Any two immiscible fluids

 Keys to Diagnosis:
• Sharp decline in production
• Water breakthrough
• Production of solids
• Fluid samples
• Injection of inhibitors

 Treatment:
• Surfactants
• Mutual solvents

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Wettability Change
 Definition:
• Oil wetting of rock from hydrocarbon deposits or adsorption of an oleophilic
(attracts oil) surfactant from treating fluid.

 Keys to Diagnosis: (Normally difficult to diagnose)

• Rapid production decline
• Casing leak
• Water breakthrough
• Water coning
• Decrease or disappearance of gas

 Treatment:
• Mutual solvent followed by water-wetting surfactant.

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Water Block
 Definition:
• Caused by an increase in water saturation near the wellbore which decreases the
relative permeability to hydrocarbons.

 Keys to Diagnosis:
• Rapid oil or gas production decline
• Casing leak
• Water breakthrough
• Water out
• Abnormally high water cut through lower perforations

 Treatment:
• Mutual solvents or surfactants

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 Scale Formation
 Definition:
• Scales are precipitated mineral deposits. Scale deposition occurs during
production because of lower temperatures and pressures encountered in or
near the wellbore.
 Keys to Diagnosis:
• Sharp drop in production
• Visible scale on rods/tubing
• Water breakthrough
 Treatment:
• Carbonate (Most Common)

HCl, Aqueous Acetic
• Sulfate  Iron

EDTA » HCl with various iron control agents

NARS  Silica
• Chloride » Mud Acid

1 - 3% HCl

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Keys to Diagnosis of a Sample
Yes
Floats in H2O 2 Organic

No

Yes
Soluble in H 2O NaCl (probably)

No

Yes Odor of
Soluble in HCl rotten eggs
Yes
No
FeS (possible)

FeCO 3
CO 2
Fe 2 (CO 3 ) 3
Evolves
No CaCO 3
MgCO 3
Ca(SO 4 ) 2 slowly soluble
(also soluble in U42)

Soluble in hot HCl

Yes
No
Yes
Iron Oxide Soluble in hot HCl/HF Silica Base (sand/clay)

No

Magnetic
Yes Yes
Magnetite Soluble in U42 SrSO 4 (slow)
FeCo 3 BaSO 4 (very slow)

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Scales : Inorganic Mineral Deposits

Types of Usual Treating

Scale Occurrence Fluids Comments

Very
Carbonates CaCO3 HCl
Common

CaSO4 •2H2 O
EDTA Common
(gypsum)
Sulfates
BaSO4 /SrSO4 EDTA Rare

Chlorides NaCl H 2 O/HCl Gas Wells

HCl + EDTA CO2 /H2 S

Fe S
Iron Possible
Fe 2 O3 HCl + Sequestering
Produced
Agent

Silica SiO2 HF Very Fine

Hydroxides Mg/Ca(OH)2 HCl

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 Organic Deposits
 Definition:
• Organic deposits are precipitated heavy hydrocarbons (parrafins or
asphaltenes). They are typically located in the tubing, perforations and/or
the formation.
• The formation of these deposits are usually associated with a change in
temperature or pressure in or near the wellbore during production.

 Keys to Diagnosis:
• Sharp decline in production
• Visual parrafin on rods and pump
• Operator is "hot oiling"

 Treatment:
• Aromatic Solvents (Xylene, Toluene)
• Mutual Solvents

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Keys to Diagnosis of Actual Organic Deposit
Floats in water Yes Organic Deposit

1. Burns evenly with clean flame Yes Paraffin/wax

No

Black sooty flame Yes Asphaltene

2. Soluble in pentane Yes Paraffin

No

Asphaltene

3. Soluble in Toluene/Xylene Yes Paraffin/

Asphaltene

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Silts & Clays
 Definition:
• Damage from silts and clays includes the invasion of the reservoir permeability
by drilling mud and the swelling and/or migration of reservoir fines.
• Keys to Diagnosis:
• Sharp drop in production
• Lost circulation during drilling
• Production tests
• ARC tests
 Treatment:
• HCl: Carbonate Reservoirs
• HF Systems: Sandstone
• Quaternary Amine Polymers (L55)
• Cationic Surfactant (M38B)
• Fusion (Clay Acid)

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Bacterial Slime

 Definition:
• Anaerobic bacteria grows downhole without oxygen up
to 150°F. Bacteria may chemically reduce sulfate in a
reservoir to H2S.

 Treatment:
• M91 (Bleach+Caustic soda)

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Sources of Formation Damage
 Drilling

 Cementing

 Perforating

 Completion and Workover

 Gravel Packing

 Production

 Stimulation

 Injection Operations

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30
Successful Matrix Treatment

 REQUIREMENTS :

• Enough Treating Fluid Volume

• Correct Reactive Chemicals

• Low Injection Pressure

• Total Zone Coverage

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INTRODUCTION TO FRACTURING

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Applications For Hydraulic Fracturing

 If wells natural permeability is low ( Ke < 10 md )

 Natural production is below economic potential

 Skin By-Pass “ HyperSTIM “ or higher permeability and soft

formations.

The injected fluid is pumped at a rate above the fracture

pressure of the reservoir to create cracks or fractures
within the rock itself.

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Hydraulic Fracturing Treatment

 Primary Purpose :
• To increase the effective wellbore area by creating a
fracture of length XL whose conductivity is greater than that
of the formation.

Dimensionless Conductivity ( Fcd ) = Kf Wf / Ke Xf

 Two Methods :
• Sand Frac
• Acid Frac

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 Propped Frac & Acid Frac

fracture tends to close

open fracture 1/2" once the pressure has been
during job released

sand used to
prop the acid etched frac
frac open walls

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Propped Fracture Optimization
 Optimize the reservoir deliverability by balancing fracture characteristics
and reservoir properties
 Analyze the effect of production systems :
• Perform => Nodal Analysis
 Determine the pumping parameters :
• DataFRAC
 Tailor the fracturing fluid and proppant to the reservoir
 Determine treatment size (Fluid & proppant amount)
• Calculate XLand FCD
 Calculate the benefit of the treatment => $
• FracNPV

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Acid Fracture

 Bottom hole pressure above fracturing pressure

 Acid reacts with the formation

 Fracture is etched

 Formation must retain integrity without fracture collapse

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Hydraulic Fracturing Accomplishes:

Creates Deep Penetrating Fractures to :

 Improve productivity
 Interconnect formation permeability
 Improve ultimate recovery
 Aid in secondary recovery
 Increase ease of injectivity

• A hydraulic Fracture has to be cost effective to the

customer.

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Fracture Penetration is influenced by:
 FORMATION CHARACTERISTICS :
• Type
• Hardness
• Permeability
• Zone Height “ Presence of Barriers “
• Drainage Radius
 FRAC FLUID CHARACTERISTICS :
• Base Fluid
• Viscosity
• Volume
• Pump Rate
• Fluid Loss

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Orientation Of The Fracture

 The fracture will extend perpendicular to the axis of the

least stress.
Overburden Pressure
• X - Y - Z Coordinate :

Favored Fracture Direction

Least Principal Stress

(i.e. Vertical Fracture)

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Vertical Or Horizontal Fracture

Vertical fracture plane is perpendicular Horizontal fracture with a pancake like

to earth’s surface due to overburden geometry. Usually associated with
stress being too great to overcome shallow wells of less than 3,000 ft. depth

 Rule-Of-thumb :
• Frac Gradient < 0.8 psi / ft --------> Vertical Fracture
• Frac Gradient > 1.0 psi / ft --------> Horizontal Fracture

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Fracture Propagation Models
 KGD
• XL < h

 PKN
• XL > h

 Radial
• XL = h/2

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Rock Mechanical Behavior
 Young’s Modulus :
• E = 

 Poisson’s Ratio :
 

L1 - L2 / L1
d1 - d2 / d1
D1
D2

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Rock Mechanical Behavior

 Young’s Modulus :
• E = 

 Poisson’s Ratio :
 

L1 - L2 / L1
d1 - d2 / d1

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Fracture Width
 W = (  Q L) 1/4 PKN
E

 W = ( QL2)1/4 KGD
EH

  = Viscosity of fluid
• Q = Injection Rate
• H = Gross Height
• L = Xf
• E = Young’s Modulus

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Net Present Value FracNPV
 BENEFITS :
• Design lowest cost job
• Realize full production rate potential
• Forecast post treatment decline
• Study impact of treatment variables

 APPLICATION :
• Select optimum XL, W & proppant type
• Aid in determining whether or not to fracture a new well
• Determine size of production equipment
• Evaluation of the fracture treatment based on well performance

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FracNPV

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 Design
FracCADE* Well XXXX
1235.5//1249.5
08-26-1997
Net Present Value

600000

500000
Net Pres ent Value - $(US)

400000

300000

200000

100000 Fluid Type

YF120LG
0
ClearFRAC (3

-100000
0 100 200 300 400 500
Hydraulic Half-Length - ft
Production time 1 year

*Mark of Schlumberger

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Conclusion
 Three Types of Stimulation :
• Wellbore Clean-up
• Matrix Treatment
• Hydraulic Fracturing
 Well Candidate Selection :
• What is it ?
• How does Dowell Schlumberger use it ?
• What are some of the tools associated with it ?
 NPV
• What is it ?
• How can it be used to design a treatment ?
• How does the output benefit our customers and us ?

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