HYDRODYNAMIC

CHARACTERISTICS OF
PROPELLERS
 Characteristics of a Propeller
Beberapa tangki percobaan (towing tank) di negara maju telah mengadakan
serangkaian percobaan dengan memakai sejumlah (banyak) model propeller.
Hasil dari percobaan tersebut memberikan diagram-diagram praktis dan
berguna pada perencanaan propeller.

Karakteristik propeler antara lain:

• Pitch ratio (P/D atau H/D)
• Jumlah daun propeler (Z)
• Blade Area Rasio (Fa/F)
• Bentuk daun (blade contour)
• Bentuk penampang propeler (blade section)
• Blade thickness ration (s/l)
• Boss ratio (dn/D)
• Dll.
Systematic Screw Series : AU type propellers (JEPANG); Wageningen B-Screw
Series (Belanda); Gawn (Inggris); Taylor (Amerika)
 Characteristics of a Propeller
The performance characteristics of a
propeller can be divided into two groups:
a) Open water characteristic
b) Behind hull properties.
 a). Open Water Characteristic
The forces and moments produced by the propeller are
expressed in terms of a series of non-dimensional
characteristics. These non-dimensional terms expressing the
general performance characteristics are:
 Open Water Characteristic
In order to establish those non-dimensional parameters,
dimensional analysis can be applied to geometrically similar
propellers.
Thrust (T) and Torque (Q) can be represented by the following
functions depending upon the physical quantities involved:
These non-dimensional parameters are used to display
open water diagrams (performance) of a propeller which
gives characteristics of the powering performance of a
propeller.
The KQ , KT versus J characteristic curves contain all of the information necessary to
define the propeller performance at a particular operating condition. Indeed, the
curves can be used for design purposes for a particular basic geometry when the
model characteristics are known for a series of pitch ratios. This, however, is a
cumbersome process and to overcome these problems Admiral Taylor derived a set
of design coefficients termed Bp and δ; these coefficients, unlike the K T, KQ and J
characteristics, are dimensional parameters and so considerable care needs to be
exercised in their use. The terms Bp and δ are defined as follows:
From the above Figure, which shows a typical propeller design diagram, it
can be seen that it essentially comprises a plotting of Bp , as abscissa,
against pitch ratio as ordinate with lines of constant δ and open water
efficiency superimposed. This diagram is the basis of many design
procedures for marine propellers, since the term Bp is usually known from
the engine and ship characteristics. From the figure a line of optimum
propeller open water efficiency can be seen as being the locus of the points
on the diagram which have the highest efficiency for a give value of Bp .
Consequently, it is possible with this diagram to select values of δ and P/D
to maximize the open water efficiency ηo for a given powering condition as
defined by the Bp parameter. Hence a basic propeller geometry can be
derived in terms of diameter D , since D = δVa /N , and P/D. Additionally, this
diagram can be used for a variety of other design purposes, such as, for
example, rpm selection. It will be seen that the Bp versus δ diagram is
limited to the representation of forward speeds of advance only, that is,
where Va > 0, since Bp →∞ when Va = 0. To overcome this problem, a
different sort of design diagram was developed from the fundamental KT ,
KQ versus J characteristics, so that design and analysis problems at or close
to zero speed of advance can be considered. This diagram is termed the μ−σ
diagram, and a typical example of one is shown in bellow Figure.
In this diagram the following relationships
apply:

It will be seen that the problem of zero ship

speed, that is when Va = 0, has been removed,
since the function φ → 0 as Va → 0.
Consequently, the line on the diagram defined
by φ = 0 represents the bollard pull condition
for the propeller. It is important, however, not
to confuse propeller thrust with bollard pull, as
these terms are quite distinct and mean
different things. Propeller thrust and bollard
pull are exactly what the terms imply; the
former relates to the hydrodynamic thrust
produced by the propeller, whereas the latter
is the pull the vessel can exert through a
towline on some other stationary object.
Typical controllable pitch propeller characteristic curves
Open water test results of Ka 4–70 screw series with nozzle no. 19A (Courtesy: MARIN)
 Thrust eccentricity and side forces on a raked high speed propeller

The Figure demonstrates these features which of course will apply generally to all propellers working in non-
uniform flow but are more noticeable with high-speed propellers due to the speeds and inclinations involved. The
magnitude of these eccentricities can be quite large; for example, in the case of unity pitch ratio with a shaft rake
of 20◦, the transverse thrust eccentricity indicated by Figure 6.10 may well reach 0.40 R. Naturally due to the non-
uniform tangential wake field the resulting cavitation pattern will also be anti-symmetric.
 b). Propeller Hull Interaction – Wake
When a propeller operates behind the hull of a ship its
hydrodynamic characteristics (i.e. thrust, torque and
efficiency) differ from the characteristics of the same
propeller operating in open water condition. This is
mainly due to different flow conditions.
Theoretically the interaction phenomenon is caused by 3
main effects:
1. Wake gain
2. Thrust deduction
3. Relative-rotative efficiency
Figure 6.24 shows the
resulting bearing forces,
that is those reacted by the
bearings of the vessel,
which are the sum of the
individual blade
components at each shaft
angular position. From the
figure it is seen that not
only is there a thrust and
torque fluctuation as
derived from individual
blade loads, but also loads
in the vertical and
horizontal directions, F Y
and F Z , and also moments
MZ and M Y .
In addition to the blade loadings the varying incidence angles
around the propeller disc introduce a fluctuating cavitation
patter n over the blades. Typical of such a patter n is that shown
in Figure 6.25, from which it is seen that the wake-induced
asymmetry also manifests itself here in the growth and decay
of the cavity volume.
 Wake gain
The flow field around a propeller close to the hull is affected by the
presence of the hull both because of the potential (non-viscous)
nature and viscous nature (boundary layer growth) of the flow.

As a result, average speed of water through the propeller

plane, VA, is different usually less than the speed of the hull, V.
The difference between the hull speed and the VA is called
wake velocity (V-VA).
The ratio of the wake velocity to the hull speed V is known as the wake
fraction (also known as Taylor wake fraction) :

The other definition of the wake fraction was made by Frodue as:

Wake gain or simply wake can be composed of three components:

Total wake = Potential wake + Viscous (frictional) wake + Wave-making wake

i- Potential or Displacement Wake Component:

The potential flow past the hull causes an increased pressure around the
stern where the streamlines are closing in. This means that, in this region,
the relative velocity of the flow past the hull will be less than the speed of
the hull and this will appear as a forward or positive wake increasing the
wake speed.
ii- Frictional (Viscous) wake component

cross-section through the boundary layer:

Because of the viscous effects:

• Mean speed through the boundary layer (Vmean) less than the ship speed V.
• Frictional wake ≈ 80 to 90% of the total wake effects. Since single screw propeller
mainly operates in a viscous (frictional) wake, the wake effect is so important.
• Twin screws work mainly in potential wake therefore the wake effect is relatively
less important.
iii- Wave-making wake component:

The ship forms a wave pattern on the water and the water particles in the
wave crest (top/ heraldic sign) have a forward velocity due to their orbital
motion, while in the troughs (low/channel) the velocity is sternward. This
orbital velocity will give rise to a wake component which will be positive or
negative depending upon the position of wave system in the vicinity
(surrounding area) of the propeller.
There is a crest (i.e. slow to medium speed ships) or trough (i.e. fast ships) of
wave system at the propeller plane.
Wake definitions:
Nominal wake: The wake in the propeller plane
without the propeller action or without the
presence of the propeller is known as nominal
wake.

Effective wake: When the effects of the

propeller in nominal wake are taken into
account one talks about the effective wake.
The following figures are typical values for w. They are based on
model tests and not to be regarded as absolute due to the scale
effects and other factors which are neglected.

Typical wake contours: a) U form hull; b) V form hull; c) twin-screw hull

Thrust deduction:
Propeller accelerates the flow ahead of itself, thereby:
• increasing the rate of shear in the boundary layer and hence increasing
the frictional resistance of the hull
• reducing pressure over the rear of the hull and hence increasing the
pressure resistance
Because of the above reasons, the action of the propeller is to alter the
resistance of the hull (usually to increase it) by an amount which is
approximately proportional to the thrust. This means that the thrust (T)
developed by the propeller must exceed the towed resistance of the hull (R).
Augment of resistance (increase) ΔR:

where ds is the hull surface element.

By defining t as “thrust deduction factor”:

The thrust deduction can be estimated by using semi-empirical formulae. A

common practice is to measure it at model scale using a stock propeller with an
approximate diameter and with the required loading at the design speed.
The thrust deduction depends on streamlining and propeller clearances relative to
the hull and rudder. It also increases with fullness.
Typical values of t are given below:
Relative-rotative efficiency:
The efficiency of a propeller in the wake behind a hull is not the same as the
propeller operating in open water. This is because:
i. Level of turbulence in the flow is very low in an open water condition
whilst it is very high in the wake behind the hull.
ii. The flow behind a hull is very non-uniform so that flow conditions at each
radius at the propeller plane are different from the conditions in open
water case.
High turbulence level affects the lift and drag on the propeller blades and
hence its efficiency. Therefore a propeller is deliberately designed for the
radial variation in wake (wake adapted propellers) to achieve a further gain.
The relative-rotative efficiency ηR is defined as the ratio of the
power delivered to a propeller producing the same thrust in
open water (PD0) and in behind (PD) conditions such that:

where PD0 : Delivered power in open water condition

PD : Delivered power in behind condition
or

ηR is usually ηR ≈ 0.96 to 1.04 depending upon the propeller type.

Propulsive efficiency and propulsion factors:
In power prediction, w, t and ηR are frequently referred as propulsion factors
or propulsion coefficients.
The relationship between the propulsive efficiency η D (or Quasi propulsive
coefficient, QPC) can be established as follows:
Summary of efficiencies in powering:
c) Standard Series Propeller Data
Systematic open water tests with series of model propellers
were performed to form a basis for propeller design. The series
were generated from a parent form such that certain parameters
influencing the performance of the propeller were varied
systematically. These parameters are:
Diameter, D ; Pitch, P usually D fixed, P/D varied
Blade Area Ratio, BAR ; Number of blades, Z BAR & Z varied
Blade shape ; Blade thickness kept constant

There are several series developed over the years. These are
Wageningen B Series (or Troost Series), AU Series, Gawn Series,
Gawn-Burril (KCA) Series, Ma Series, Schaffran Series. We will
be dealing with the most acceptable two series, Wageningen B
and Gawn Series.
i- Wageningen B propeller series:
Amongst the series, one of the most extensive and widely used for fixed pitch, merchant ship
(slow to medium speed) model propeller series is the WAGENINGEN OR TROOST B SERIES.
The basic form of B-series is simple. They have modern sections and have good performance
characteristics. About 210 propellers were tested in Wageningen (today known as MARIN)
model tank in the Netherlands.
The family of models of fixed diameter was generated by varying:
P/D 0.5 to 1.4
Z 2 to 7
AE/A0 0.3 to 1.05
The basic characteristics of B-Series are such that they have:
• 250 mm diameter and rh/R is 0.167 (rh is the hub radius)
• constant radial pitch distribution at outer radii R
• small skew
• 15° backward rake angle with linear rake distribution
• a blade contour with fairly wide tips
• segmental tip blade sections and aerofoil sections at inner radii

• no consideration of cavitation
ii- Gawn series
This series of propellers comprised a set of 37 three-bladed
propellers covering a range of pitch ratios and BAR:
P/D 0.4 to 2.0
BAR 0.2 to 1.1

The entire series were tested in the No:2 towing tank at Admiralty
Experimental Works (AEW) Haslar, UK and presented by Gawn.
These series have:
• a diameter of 508 mm (20 inches)
• segmental blade sections
• constant blade thickness ratio si/D=0.06
• a hub diameter of 0.20D
• no cavitation characteristics given
iii- Representation of Series
The representation of systematic open water diagrams may differ depending on
the design options. The most widely used diagrams are K T-KQ-J diagrams Bp-Bu-δ
diagrams and μ-σ-φ diagrams.
In addition to the above coefficients Taylor presented the following
constants with the following units:

Power coefficient Thrust coefficient

Advance constant Propeller efficiency

 Contoh 1. Perencanaan Propeller
Diketahui:
Sebuah Kapal Barang dengan baling-baling satu
digerakkan oleh satu mesin induk dengan daya SHP =
7.200 HP(metrik). Kecepatan kapal Vs = 16,6 knot.
Putaran baling-baling direncanakan sebesar N = 126
Rpm. Letak kamar mesin di belakang.
Ditanya :
Berapa besar diameter optimum dari baling-balingnya
dan harga pitch rationya, jika type propeller yang dipilih
adalah type B5-75 dan diameter baling-baling tidak
boleh melebihi 5,60 meter.
 Contoh 1. Perencanaan Propeller
Jawab:
Daya dorong propeller (Delivered Horse Power) : daya mesin penggerak
dikurangi kerugian-kerugian mekanis akibat bantalan poros dsb.
untuk kamar mesin di tengah m= 5%
untuk kamar mesin di belakang m= 3%
Maka: T = PD = (1 - m).PB = (1-3%).7200 = 8984 HP(metrik)
Torsi : P x75x60 6984x 4500
Q D   39.718 kg.m
2N 2 xx126
Kecepatan masuk rata-rata dari air yang melewati piringan baling-baling
(advanced speed), misal wake fraction w = 0.5Cb-0,05) = 0,24 :
Va = (1-w).Vs = (1-0,24).16,6 = 12,61 knots
Dengan ketentuan di atas maka diambil beberapa harga D di bawah 5,60
meter, dipilih sekitar 4,40 s/d 5,60 meter. Hitung harga Kq dan J, kemudian
dengan menggunakan diagram Kt-Kq-J dari tipe B5-75 dapatlah dicari harga-
harga pitch ratio H/D dan efisiensi propeler p, seperti pada tabel berikut
 Contoh 1. Perencanaan Propeller
D KQ J Ho/D hp
4.40 0.05223 0.703 1.229 0.596
4.70 0.03755 0.658 1.056 0.618
5.00 0.02756 0.618 0.921 0.627
5.30 0.02060 0.583 0.804 0.617
5.60 0.01564 0.552 0.712 0.551

30,896.Va
J
ND

2,4669 x10 4 PD
KQ 
N 3D5

Va
J
nD

Q
KQ 
N 2 D 5
 Contoh 1. Perencanaan Propeller
1.3

1.2
Ho/D

Effesiensi Prop
1.1

0.9

0.8 Dari grafik , maka D

0.7 p
optimum propeller
adalah sekitar 5,00
0.6 meter dan Ho/D =
0,921 dengan efisiensi
0.5
propeller 62,7%
0.4
4.40 4.70 5.00 5.30 5.60