N.

GREGORY MANKIW
PRINCIPLES OF

ECONOMICS
Eight Edition

CHAPTER
Monopoly
15
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 Look for the answers to these questions:
• Why do monopolies arise?
• Why is MR < P for a monopolist?
• How do monopolies choose their P and Q?
• How do monopolies affect society’s well-
being?
• What can the government do about
monopolies?
• What is price discrimination?

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 • If you own a personal computer, it
probably uses some version of Windows,
the operating system sold by the
Microsoft Corporation.
• The copyright gives Microsoft the
exclusive right to make and sell copies of
the Windows operating system.
• Microsoft is said to have a monopoly in
the market for Windows.
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 Introduction
• Monopoly
– A firm that is the sole seller of a product
without close substitutes
– Has market power
• The ability to influence the market price of the
product it sells
• A competitive firm has no market power
– Arise due to barriers to entry
• Other firms cannot enter the market to
compete with it
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 Three Barriers to Entry
1. Monopoly resources
– A single firm owns a key resource.
• E.g., DeBeers owns most of the world’s
diamond mines
2. Government regulation
– The government gives a single firm the
exclusive right to produce the good.
• E.g., patents, copyright laws

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 Three Barriers to Entry
3. The production process
– Natural monopoly: a single firm can
produce the entire market Q at lower cost
than could several firms
Cost Electricity
Example: 1000 homes ATC slopes
need electricity. downward due
ATC is lower if one firm to huge FC and
services all 1000 homes $80 small MC
than if two firms each $50 ATC
service 500 homes. Q
500 1000
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 Monopoly vs. Competition: Demand Curves
P A competitive firm’s P A monopolist’s
demand curve demand curve

D
Q Q
In a competitive market, the market demand curve slopes
downward. But the demand curve for any individual firm’s
product is horizontal at the market price. The firm can increase Q
without lowering P, so MR = P for the competitive firm.
A monopolist is the only seller, so it faces the market demand
curve. To sell a larger Q, the firm must reduce P. Thus, MR ≠ P.
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 Active Learning 1 A monopoly’s revenue
Common Grounds is
the only seller of
cappuccinos in town. Q P TR AR MR
The table shows the 0 $4.50 n.a.
market demand for
cappuccinos. 1 4.00

Fill in the missing 2 3.50

spaces of the table. 3 3.00
What is the relation 4 2.50
between P and AR?
Between P and MR? 5 2.00
6 1.50
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 Active Learning 1 Answers

• P = AR, Q P TR AR MR
same as for a 0 $4.50 $0 n.a.
$4
competitive firm. 1 4.00 4 $4.00
• MR < P, whereas 3
2 3.50 7 3.50
MR = P for a 2
3 3.00 9 3.00
competitive firm. 1
4 2.50 10 2.50
0
5 2.00 10 2.00
–1
6 1.50 9 1.50
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 Common Grounds’ D and MR Curves
P, MR
Q P MR
$5
0 $4.50
$4 4
Demand curve (P)
1 4.00 3
3
2 3.50 2
2 1
3 3.00
1 0
4 2.50
0 -1 MR
5 2.00 -2
–1
6 1.50 -3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Q

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 Understanding the Monopolist’s MR
• Increasing Q has two effects on revenue:
– Output effect: higher output raises revenue
– Price effect: lower price reduces revenue
• Marginal revenue, MR < P
– To sell a larger Q, the monopolist must
reduce the price on all the units it sells
– Is negative if price effect > output effect
• e.g., when Common Grounds increases Q
from 5 to 6
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 Profit-Maximization
• Like a competitive firm, a monopolist
maximizes profit by producing the quantity
where MR = MC
– Sets the highest price consumers are
willing to pay for that quantity
– It finds this price from the D curve

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 Profit-Maximization

Costs and
Revenue MC

The profit- P
maximizing Q is
where MR = MC.
D
Find P from the
demand curve at MR
this Q.
Q Quantity

Profit-maximizing output

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 The Monopolist’s Profit

Costs and
Revenue MC
As with a
competitive firm, P
ATC
the monopolist’s ATC
profit equals
(P – ATC) x Q D
MR

Q Quantity

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 A Monopoly Does Not Have an S Curve
• A competitive firm takes P as given
– Has a supply curve that shows how its Q
depends on P
• A monopoly firm is a “price-maker”
– Q does not depend on P
– Q and P are jointly determined by MC,
MR, and the demand curve
– Hence, no supply curve for monopoly.

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 CASE STUDY: Monopoly vs. Generic Drugs

Patents on new The market for

Price a typical drug
drugs give a
temporary
monopoly to the PM
seller.
PC = MC
When the
patent expires, D
the market MR
becomes
QM Quantity
competitive,
QC
generics appear.

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 The Welfare Cost of Monopoly
• Recall:
– Competitive market equilibrium: P = MC
and total surplus is maximized
• Monopoly equilibrium, P > MR = MC
– The value to buyers of an additional unit (P)
exceeds the cost of the resources needed to
produce that unit (MC)
– The monopoly Q is too low – could increase
total surplus with a larger Q.
– Monopoly results in a deadweight loss
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 The Welfare Cost of Monopoly

Competitive equilibrium:
Price Deadweight
• quantity = QC MC
•P = MC loss
•total surplus is P
P = MC
maximized
MC
Monopoly equilibrium:
D
•quantity = QM
MR
•P > MC
•deadweight loss QM QC Quantity

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 Price Discrimination
• Price discrimination:
– Sell the same good at different prices to
different buyers
– A firm can increase profit by charging a
higher price to buyers with higher
willingness to pay
– Requires the ability to separate customers
according to their willingness to pay
– Can raise economic welfare
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 Price Discrimination
• Perfect price discrimination
– Charge each customer a different price
• Exactly his or her willingness to pay
– Monopoly firm gets the entire surplus
(Profit)
– No deadweight loss

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 Single Price Monopoly

Here, the Consumer

Price
monopolist surplus
charges the Deadweight
same price (PM) PM
loss
to all buyers.
MC
Monopoly
profit D
MR
A deadweight
loss results. QM Quantity

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 Perfect Price Discrimination vs. Single Price Monopoly

Here, the monopolist

produces the
competitive quantity, but Price
Monopoly
charges each buyer his
profit
or her WTP.
This is called perfect
price discrimination.
MC
The monopolist captures D
all CS as profit.
MR
But there’s no DWL.
Quantity
Q
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 Price Discrimination in the Real World
• Perfect price discrimination
– Not possible in the real world
• No firm knows every buyer’s WTP
• Buyers do not reveal it to sellers
• Price discrimination
– Firms divide customers into groups
based on some observable trait
that is likely related to willingness to pay
(WTP), such as age
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 Examples of Price Discrimination
• Movie tickets
– Discounts for seniors, students, and
people who can attend during weekday
afternoons.
• Lower WTP than people who pay full price on
Friday night
• Airline prices
– Discounts for Saturday-night stayovers
• Business travelers (higher WTP) vs. more
price-sensitive leisure travelers
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 Examples of Price Discrimination
• Discount coupons
– People who have time to clip and organize
coupons are more likely to have lower
income and lower WTP than others
• Need-based financial aid
– Low income families have lower WTP for
their children’s college education
– Schools price-discriminate by offering
need-based aid to low income families
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 Examples of Price Discrimination
• Quantity discounts
– A buyer’s WTP often declines with
additional units, so firms charge less per
unit for large quantities than small ones.
• Example: A movie theater charges $4 for
a small popcorn and $5 for a large one that’s
twice as big

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 Public Policy Toward Monopolies
1. Increasing competition with antitrust laws
– Sherman Antitrust Act, 1890
– Clayton Antitrust Act, 1914
– Prevent mergers
– Break up companies
– Prevent companies from coordinating their
activities to make markets less
competitive

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 ASK THE EXPERTS
Airline Mergers
“If regulators had not approved mergers in the
past decade between major networked
airlines, travelers would be better off today.”

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 Public Policy Toward Monopolies
2. Regulation
– Regulate the behavior of monopolists
• Set the monopolists’ price
– Common in case of natural monopolies
• MC < ATC at all Q
• Marginal-cost pricing would result in losses
– Regulator might subsidize the monopolist
or set P = ATC for zero economic profit

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 Public Policy Toward Monopolies
3. Public ownership
– How the ownership of the firm affects the
costs of production
– Private owners: incentive to min costs
– Public owners (government)
• If it does a bad job, losers are the customers
and taxpayers
• Public ownership is usually less efficient since
no profit motive to minimize costs

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 Public Policy Toward Monopolies
4. Do nothing
– Some economists argue that it is often
best for the government not to try to
remedy the inefficiencies of monopoly
pricing
– Determining the proper role of the
government in the economy requires
judgments about politics as well as
economics

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 The Prevalence of Monopoly
• Pure monopoly – rare in the real world
• Many firms have market power, due to:
– Selling a unique variety of a product
– Having a large market share and few
significant competitors
• In many such cases, most of the results
from this chapter apply, including:
– Markup of price over marginal cost
– Deadweight loss
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 Summary
• A monopoly is a firm that is the sole seller in its
market.
– A monopoly arises when a single firm owns a
key resource, when the government gives a firm
the exclusive right to produce a good, or when a
single firm can supply the entire market at a
lower cost than many firms could.
– Faces a downward-sloping demand curve for its
product.

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 Summary
• Monopoly increases production by 1 unit
– Causes the price of its good to fall, which
reduces the amount of revenue earned on all
units produced.
– Marginal revenue is always below the price
• A monopoly firm maximizes profit by producing
the quantity at which marginal revenue equals
marginal cost.
– Sets the price at which that quantity is
demanded. P > MR, so P > MC
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 Summary
• A monopolist’s profit-maximizing level of output
is below the level that maximizes the sum of
consumer and producer surplus.
– Causes deadweight losses
• A monopolist can often increase profits by
charging different prices for the same good
based on a buyer’s willingness to pay.
– Price discrimination can raise economic welfare
– Perfect price discrimination, the deadweight loss
of monopoly is completely eliminated

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 Summary
• Policymakers can respond to the inefficiency of
monopoly behavior in four ways
– Use antitrust laws to try to make the industry
more competitive
– Regulate the prices that the monopoly charges
– Turn the monopolist into a government-run
enterprise
– Can do nothing at all

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