Unit 01

Introduction to Laser Safety

 Outcomes
Explain the various hazards associated with lasers.

Knowledge of how to use the laser equipment safely.

Explain which human tissues are susceptible to laser radiation damage

Distinguish between three main categories of Laser hazards.

Handle glass fibres safely.

Calculate beam irradiance, permissible exposure and optical density.

Operate laser safely

 Photonics
Photonics is the science and technology of generating, detecting and controlling photons, which are
particles of light.

Photonics underpins technologies of daily life from smartphones to laptops to the Internet to
medical instruments to lighting technology.

Applications in photonics Include all areas from everyday life to the most advanced science, e.g.
light detection, telecommunications, information processing, lighting, metrology, spectroscopy,
holography, medicine (surgery, vision correction, endoscopy, health monitoring), military
technology, laser material processing, visual art, biophotonics, agriculture, and robotics.

Light sources used in photonics are usually far more sophisticated than light bulbs. Photonics
commonly uses semiconductor light sources like light-emitting diodes (LEDs), super luminescent
diodes, and lasers.
 Laser Safety

This section describe safety aspects of dealing with a laser.

What is a laser?
 The Laser

Laser is an acronym and stands for:

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical

amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic
radiation.

A laser consists of three parts:

(1) The resonator, cavity or feedback system

(2) The lasing or gain medium, and

(3) The pumping mechanism (optical or electrical)

 The Laser

A Laser light is said to be

1.Coherent – a fixed phase relationship between the

electric field values at different locations or at different
times.

2. Unidirectional (Collimated) – photons are in the same

direction.

3. Monochromatic – photons are of the same wavelength

Difference: Laser and Normal light

Lasers

White Light

© CSIR 2006

www.csir.co.za/nlc
1. Monochromatic
 2. Directional

© CSIR 2006

www.csir.co.za/nlc
3. Coherence
Institutes dealing with Laser Safety Standards are:

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

ANSI Z136.1, Z136.2, Z136.3…
Health care , Education, Telecommunication etc.
Documents are available at www.laserinstitute.org

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

manufacturers of laser systems must comply

with the regulations of the Center for Devices and
Radiological Health (CDRH) of the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA)
The safe handling and use of lasers depends on:

The power (or power density, called irradiance)

The wavelength (or colour)

Time of exposure

and whether the laser is continuous wave (cw) or pulsed

 Laser hazards
Laser hazards are grouped into three main categories:

Eye hazards

Skin hazards

Secondary hazards
• Electrical
• Chemical
• Fire
• Explosion

Laser light can impair your vision but electrical hazards can
be lethal
 Laser classification
Lasers are classified into four main groups.

they are classified for safety purposes based on their

potential for causing injury to humans’ eyes and skin.

1. Class 1
2. Class 2
3. Class 3a and Class 3b
4. Class 4

Self – study

http://www.lasersafetyfacts.com/laserclasses.html
 The Human Eye
The eye is the part of the body most vulnerable to laser hazards.
Changes to the eye can occur at much lower laser power levels than
changes to the skin.

And, eye injuries are generally far more serious than injuries to the
skin.
 Eye hazards
The iris (coloured part of the eye) controls the amount of
entering light by varying the size of the pupil

The pupil is the opening in the center of the iris. The size
of a pupil changes from about 2 mm to 7 mm according to
the brightness of light.

The cornea is the outermost transparent layer and covers

the front of the eye

The cornea can withstand dust, sand etc.

Corneal cells replace themselves within 48 hours

The lens together with the cornea focuses the light on the
Retina

Light passes through the cornea and is focused onto the

retina

There it forms an image, which is relayed via electrical

signals to the brain

The light irradiance of the image formed on the retina is

100 000 times greater than the light irradiance at the front
of the eye P
I
A
Consider a 0.10 W/cm2 irradiance laser beam striking the
eye. What would be the irradiance of the beam on the retina?
Most of the focusing power of the eye is due to the cornea
rather than the lens

The focal length of a lens depends on the index of refraction

of the material of the lens as well as the material
surrounding the lens

The cornea is surrounded by air

The lens is surrounded by a liquid with a refractive index

similar to that of the lens

Therefore, the cornea has a higher refractive power than the

lens
The light sensitive retina consists of an array of
photoreceptors called rods and cones, which absorb photons
and produce electrical signals that travel along the
optical nerve to the brain (visual cortex) for interpretation

Cones are concentrated in the center of the retina, an area

called fovea centralis

Cones are responsible for colour vision

Rods are not colour sensitive, they are responsible for low
light viewing
 Eye hazards

 One can imagine that if very high levels of

illumination are focused through the lens onto the
retina for extended periods of time, temporally or
permanent damage can occur to the retina.

 Example – looking at the sun for a few seconds

without eye protection – temporary damage
 Example 3.1 (Vasan)
Using the average of 15 µm for the spot diameter, compare
the irradiance on the retina for a fully dilated pupil of 8 mm
opening for a 1 mW power laser with irradiance of 10W/cm2
from the sun at noon.

With the pupil fully dilated, the entire laser beam (up to a
diameter of 8 mm) can enter the lens and be focused on the
retina
2 4 2
Solution:  d  (15 x 10 cm )
A   1.77 x 10 6 cm 2
4 4
P 1 x 103W
I   566 W / cm 2
A 1.77 x 10 6 cm 2
Looking directly into the sun at noon, the retina receives
about 10 W/cm2

The irradiance on the retina from a 1 mW laser is 57 times

larger
Example 3.2 (Vasan)
For the same laser beam as in Example 3.1, if the beam
diameter is 2 mm, what is the beam irradiance as it strikes
the lens?
Solution:
 d 2  (0.2 cm) 2
A   0.0314 cm 2
4 4
3
P 1 x 10 W
I  2
 0.0318 W / cm  31.8 mW / cm
2 2

A 0.0314 cm
 Example 3.3 (Vasan)

If the laser beam of Example 3.1 is expanded to 1 cm in

diameter

What is the irradiance?

Solution:

 d 2  (1 cm) 2
A   0.785 cm 2

4 4
3
P 1 x 10 W 3
I  2
 1.27 x 10 W / cm  1.27 mW / cm
2 2

A 0.785 cm
Activity

Compare the irradiance from a 60 Watt light bulb at a

distance of 1 meter from the bulb to that of a 5 mW
laser pointer which makes a 4 mm diameter spot 1
meter from the laser
Solution:

The light from the bulb spreads out in all directions,

so the total power (60 Watt) passes through the
surface of a sphere 1 meter in radius

A  4 r  4(100 cm)  126000 cm

2 2 2

60 W W
I 2
 0.00048 2
126000 cm cm

The irradiance of the light bulb is 0.00048 W/cm2

1 meter away from the bulb
The laser beam makes a spot of 4 mm diameter

The power (5 mW) is concentrated onto a 2 mm (0.2 cm)

radius circle

A   r  (0.2 cm)  0.126 cm

2 2 2

0.005 W W
I 2
 0.040 2
0.126 cm cm

The irradiance of the laser is 0.040 W/cm2 , more than

80 times that of the light bulb
The irradiance of the laser changes slowly as you move
away from the laser because the beam spreads little as it
propagates

The irradiance of the bulb drops as 1/r2 where r is the

distance from the bulb
 Wavelength Dependence
What types of wavelength affects which parts of the eye?

Lasers operate across a spectrum of light, from the

far-infrared (IR) through the visible and into the
deep-ultraviolet (UV).

Ranges are traditionally given as:

ultraviolet light, 100-400 nm; visible light, 400-750 nm;
and infrared, 750 nm-1 mm.
 UV-C UV-B UV-A VISIBLE

100 nm - 280 nm 315 nm – 400 nm –

280 nm -315 nm 400 nm 700 nm
Cornea Cornea Lens Retina

IR-A IR-B IR-C

700 nm - 1400 nm - 3000 nm –

1400 nm 3000 nm 1 mm
Retina Cornea Cornea
 Wavelength Dependence

Mid and far infrared (IR-B and IR-C) and mid and far
ultraviolet (UV-B and UV-C) are absorbed by the cornea

Near ultraviolet (UV-A) passes through the cornea and is

absorbed by the lens
Can cause lens clouding (cataracts)

Visible and near infrared light (IR-A) passes through the

cornea and lens and is focused on the retina
Laser Safety Eyewear
Protective eyewear in the form of goggles, spectacles,
wraps and shields provides protection for the eyes

Laser safety eyewear must be worn at all times during

operation of Class 3B and Class 4 lasers

The operating wavelength and power determine which

eyewear to choose

Laser eyewear should be treated with care to avoid

scratches or other damage which might render them
not safe anymore
Pictures of
laser eyewear

Laser eyewear must be kept clean

Laser eyewear can be cleaned with alcohol or warm water
Don’t use acetone!
Viewing Conditions

The damage caused to your eye depends on the amount

of light energy absorbed

The most hazardous viewing condition is looking directly

into the beam
Viewing Conditions
Reflected beams may or may not be harmful, depending
on the laser power, the laser wavelength, the curvature
of the reflector surface, and whether the reflection is
specular or diffuse
Viewing Conditions

Specular reflections are mirror-like and can return close

to 100% of the incident beam

Diffuse reflections result when irregularities in the

surface scatter light in all directions

Whether a reflection is specular or diffuse depends upon

the wavelength and the smoothness of the surface
 Viewing Conditions
Flat reflective surfaces will not change the beam diameter,
only the direction

Convex surfaces will cause beam spreading

Concave surfaces will make the beam converge

The Skin
The skin consists of two main layers:
the epidermis (surface layer) and
the dermis (the underlying layer)
The outermost layer of the epidermis is the stratum corneum
This layer consists mostly of dead cells, is 8 to 20 µm thick
and protects against water loss, abrasion, dust, air and
radiant energy

In the layer of the epidermis just below the stratum corneum

are specialized cells that produce melanin pigment granules.
These granules migrate through the epidermis. They protect
the dermis against ultraviolet radiation

The epidermis is about 0.1 mm thick

The dermis contains connective tissue that gives elasticity
and support to the skin

The dermis has numerous blood vessels, nerve cells, sweat

glands, and hair follicles

Sweat glands and blood vessels regulate the body

temperature

Nerve cells include heat sensors, cold sensors, pain sensors,

and tactile (touch) sensors
The skin reflects most visible (400 – 700 nm) and IR-A
(near infrared, (315 – 400 nm)) radiation

The epidermis is highly absorbing at UV-B and UV-C

wavelengths and at
IR-B and IR-C wavelengths

UV-B and UV-C cause reddening (sunburn) and eventual

tanning – known as erythema – of the skin

Chronic exposure to UV accelerates aging of the skin and

increases the risk of skin cancer
Skin Hazards

Skin damage is not as life-altering as eye injuries

It may occur with high power lasers

Thermal damage is the result of extreme heating by

medium and high power infrared lasers

Accelerated skin aging and increased risk of cancer

may result from exposure to ultraviolet lasers
This photochemical damage is similar to sunburn

Protective clothing may be required

 Laser Safety

How much exposure to laser light is hazardous?

To answer this question, you have to take into account the output
characteristics of the laser.

Those characteristics include wavelength, output energy and power,

size of the irradiated area, and duration of exposure.
 Laser Safety
Sensitivity to a given wavelength varies significantly from person to
person. Maximum permissible exposure (MPE) limits indicate the
greatest exposure that most individuals can tolerate without
sustaining injury.

An MPE is usually expressed in terms of the allowable exposure

time (in seconds) for a given irradiance (in watts/cm2 ) at a particular
wavelength. Table 2-3 gives the maximum permissible exposure for
the eye for a variety of lasers operating at different irradiance levels.

For example, Table 2-3 indicates that, for an argon laser operating at
0.514 µm, the MPE is 2.5 × 10–3 W/cm2 for an exposure time of 0.25
second, MPEs are useful for determining optical densities for
eyewear or windows.
Irradiance and Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE)
To select protective equipment the laser wavelength
and the power density or irradiance must be known

Irradiance is power per unit area P W 

and the SI units are W/cm2 I
A  cm 2 
Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE)

Maximum permissible exposure is defined as:

“the level of laser radiation to which a person may be

exposed without hazardous effects or adverse biological
changes in the eye or skin”

it is the highest power or energy density of a light source

that is considered safe

MPE is expressed as the allowable irradiance in W/cm2

at a particular wavelength for a given exposure time in
seconds
The MPE for both eye and skin can be calculated from
formulas provided in the ANSI Z-136 standard document
MPE calculated for selected CW lasers and exposure times

Laser Type Wavelength MPE (average power density

(nm) mW/cm2) Exposure time in sec

0.25 s 10 s 600 s
HeCd 325 100 1.67
Argon - Ion 488 2.5 1.0 0.0167
Argon - Ion 514 2.5 1.0 0.0167
HeNe 633 2.5 1.0 0.283
Nd:YAG 1064 5.1 202
CO2 10600 100 100
For visible radiation (400 – 700 nm) the MPE is shown for
0.25 seconds, the human aversion response time

The infrared laser beam is invisible

Normal eye movement will redirect the eye from the beam
within 10 seconds

For infrared lasers the MPE is calculated for 10 seconds

 Example 1.2
Does the beam from a 3 mW laser pointer (650 nm)
exceed the MPE for 0.25 seconds if it enters a 7 mm
diameter fully dilated pupil? If yes it exceed by how much?

Solution:
The pupil area is A = π r2 , the pupil radius 0.35 cm

3 mW 3 W
Irradiance   7. 8 x 10
 (0.35 cm) 2 cm 2

The MPE for a laser operating at 650 nm is 2.5 x 10-3 W/cm2

The MPE is exceeded by more than three times
Normal hazard zone (NHZ)
Another quantity of interest in laser safety is called the nominal
hazard zone (NHZ).

This zone describes the region within which the level of direct,
reflected, or scattered (diffuse) laser radiation is above the
allowable MPE.

Nominal hazard zone is defined as the zone within which safe

exposure level is exceeded.

This is a distance within which the irradiance of a beam is greater

than the MPE.

Example 2 shows how to calculate an NHZ for a given laser and

given MPE
 Example 2

A CO2 laser with a power P of 500 W and exit beam diameter b out of
the laser of 3 cm is focused by a convex lens of focal length f0 = 20 cm.
Determine the nominal hazard zone (NHZ) from the focal point of lens

NZH
 

= 5.32 m
Calculating Optical Density for Laser Safety Eyewear
The eyewear is a filter or absorber designed to reduce
light transmission of a specific wavelength or band of
wavelengths

The absorption capability is described by the

optical density (OD)

an expression of the transmittance of an optical element

If I0 is the irradiance incident on the absorbing material

and IT the irradiance transmitted through the material, then

IT = I0 x 10-OD
The transmittance (T) of the light of the absorber is
defined as the ratio of IT / I0

IT
T  10 OD
I0

OD of 1 means the filter has reduced the irradiance

of the beam to 1/101 = 1/10 of its original irradiance

OD of 5 means the filter has reduced the irradiance

of the beam to 1/105 = 1/100 000 of its original irradiance
The transmitted irradiance must not exceed the
maximum permissible exposure (MPE)

If we replace IT with MPE

MPE  I 0 x 10  OD
or
 I0 
OD  log10  
 MPE 
Example 1.3

A 50 Watt Nd:YAG laser (CW at 1.064 µm) is projected onto

a fully dilated pupil of 7 mm diameter

The eye is exposed for 10 seconds.

Calculate the minimum OD of a laser safety goggle needed

to protect the eye from damage
 Solution:

The MPE for Nd:YAG laser for 10 seconds exposure is

5.1 x 10-3 W/cm2
P 50 W 50 W W
I0     132 2
A (0.35 cm) 2
0.38 cm 2
cm

 W 
 132 2 
OD  log10  cm   4.4
 5.1 x 10 3 W 
 
 cm 2 

The optical density for the laser safety goggles must be

at least 4.4.
 Exercise

A 90 Watt Argon – Ion laser (CW at 0.455 µm) is projected

onto a pupil of 4 mm diameter

The eye is exposed for 0.25 seconds.

Calculate the minimum OD of a laser safety goggle needed

to protect the eye from damage
Electrical Hazards

Electrical shock is the most lethal hazard

Electrical hazards result from inappropriate electrical

installation, grounding or handling of high voltage

Capacitors can hold charge long after the laser is

switched off and touching large capacitors can be lethal
Electrical Safety

Nobody got killed by laser radiation, but fatal accidents

happened due to electrical shocks

Safety Rules

1. Whenever feasible, unplug equipment before performing

maintenance or repair

2. There should always be two persons present

3. Remove conductive material from personnel

Fire and Explosion Hazards

High-pressure arc lamps and filament lamps can explode

High power lasers used for cutting may present fire hazards
Associated Hazards

Operation of lasers may involve compressed gases,

toxic dyes or cryogenic liquids

Laser generated air contaminants like dangerous fumes,

and toxic compounds may be formed including
metal oxide fumes, cyanide and formaldehyde
Administrative Laser Safety Controls

Warning signs and labels

Standard operating procedures
Personal protective equipment
Laser safety training

Engineering Laser Safety Controls

Shutters
Interlocks
Delayed emission
Remote firing
Laser Warning Signs
from the
Laser Institute of America
 Practical Rules for Using Lasers
Do not look into a laser beam or reflections from shiny surfaces

Only trained and qualified personnel should work with lasers

Keep room lights on if possible (minimizes the pupil size)

Remove watches, rings and other shiny objects

Use beam blocks

Do not bend down below beam height

Wear laser safety eyewear

Report any accidents immediately

4. Use only one hand when working with live circuits.
This minimizes the risk of current flowing through
the heart

5. Discharge capacitors, which are part of power supplies.

Shorten capacitors which are not in use

6. Use insulated tools

7. Use insulated matting

8. Know emergency power shut off

9. Do not defeat electrical interlocks

Fiber Handling Safety

Small pieces of fiber, usually of the order of a few

micrometers to few tens of micrometers in diameter,
inadvertently get into the human blood stream through a
puncture wound and then travel through the capillary, vein
and artery system throughout the body, potentially causing
bleeding.

If you get pieces of a fiber into your eyes, you never can get
it out, therefore:
1. Wear safety glasses during cleaving fibers

2. Wear suitable gloves when handling fibers and avoid

puncture wounds

3. Clean up the work place of fiber pieces using sticky tape

4. Dispose fiber debris in suitable containers and label them

Optical Power Meters

Detectors can be broadly classified into photo detectors and

thermal detectors

Photo detectors convert the incident energy into a current or

voltage

They are calibrated for a specific wavelength

Examples are photodiodes and photoconductors

Thermal detectors convert the incident energy into heat and
temperature change, which would change the electrical
property such as resistance

Examples are thermistors and pyroelectric detectors

Silicon detectors measure the power of visible laser beams

Germanium or indium gallium arsenide detectors measure

the power of near infrared lasers

For other wavelength than the calibrated wavelength one

has to apply a correction factor to get the correct reading
Correction factor (calibration) graph for a typical
silicon photodiode

The detector is calibrated for around 900 nm

If one exceeds the threshold irradiance the detector will be
damaged

Therefore one must perform irradiance calculations to

avoid this

If the irradiance is too high and to avoid damage one has to

expand the laser beam

If the detector is overfilled one has to calculate the

correction factor

Pulsed lasers like the excimer laser require Joule meters to

measure the pulse energy
Pyroelectric detectors have fast response times and are
suitable for pulsed lasers

Thermopile detectors have response times between one to

three seconds and are suitable to measure CW laser powers
Laser Classification

Class 1 Lasers

are low power lasers (below 0.4 µW) which cannot cause
injuries to eyes or skin

Class 1 lasers include printers, DVD players, laser pointers

and high-power lasers located in enclosures that prohibit
access to the laser radiation
Class 1 M Lasers

are normally safe for eyes and skin, but may cause injury
to the eyes if the output is concentrated using optics

Class 2 Lasers

are visible lasers with output powers higher than class 1

lasers but less than 1 mW
The definition of class 2 lasers assumes that a person will
blink or turn away in less than 0.25 seconds (human
aversion reaction time or blink reflex)
Under these circumstances the class 2 laser will not injure
the eye
Class 3A Lasers

For visible lasers, the output power levels range from

1 mW to 5 mW

Many laser pointers are class 3A lasers

Class 3B Lasers

Include laser systems with constant power output

(cw lasers) from 5 mW to 500 mW

Repetitive pulsed laser systems with beam energies

between 30 – 150 milli joules per pulse for visible and
infrared light

or greater than 125 milli joules per pulse for other

wavelengths

The average power for pulsed lasers must be less than

500 mW
Class 4 Lasers

Include all laser systems that exceed class 3B limits

These are high power lasers or laser systems
(above 500 mW)
Viewing either the specular or diffuse reflections can be
dangerous
They may cause severe eye injury and skin damage
Class 4 lasers present skin or fire hazards and both eye
and skin protection is required

Class 4 lasers in enclosures are rated class 1

Interlocks and other controls prevent operation when the

enclosure is opened. But these can be breeched
Institutes dealing with Laser Safety Standards are:

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

ANSI Z136.1, Z136.2, Z136.3…
Health care , Education, Telecommunication etc.
Documents are available at www.laserinstitute.org

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

American manufacturers of laser systems must comply

with the regulations of

the Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH)

of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
 References
Laser Institute of America, “ANSI Z136.1 (2000)
Save Use of Lasers,” Orlando, Florida.

Web Sites
www.laserinstitute.org (Laser Institute of America)
www.kentek.com (Kentek Corporation)
www.rli.com (Rockwell Laser Industries)

www.safety.vanderbilt.edu/training

http://www.trianagroup.com/photonics-in-the-united-states-a-market-study-completed-by-the-triana-group
/

http://www.lasersafetyfacts.com/resources/Arrow---eye-injury-hazard.png

http://photomachining.com/mm-Laserbeam-wavelength-determines-its-color.html

https://www.thorlabs.de/newgrouppage9.cfm?objectgroup_id=5276
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
feature=player_detailpage&v=EnKxKmaJvfY

<iframe width="640" height="360"

src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/E
nKxKmaJvfY?feature=player_detailpage"
frameborder="0"
allowfullscreen></iframe>
Review Questions

1. Explain the importance of maximum permissible

exposure and the nominal hazard zone

2. What are the two ways that skin might be affected by

laser exposure?

3. What is the most lethal hazard associated with the laser?

4. What wavelengths pose the greatest danger for retinal

exposure?

5. What is the “human aversion response” time and how

long is it?
6. To which classification would each of the following
lasers/laser systems belong?

a. A completely enclosed system (e.g. DVD player,

laser printer, laser engraver)
b. Most inexpensive red laser pointers
c. Laser used for cutting, welding or other material
processing
d. A 50 mW argon-ion laser
e. Low power lab HeNe laser (1 mW or less)

7. What is the difference between Class 3A and Class 3B

lasers?
What controls apply to each?
 Example 3.3 (Vasan)

If the laser beam of Example 3.1 is expanded to 1 cm in

diameter

What is the irradiance?

Solution:

 d 2  (1 cm) 2
A   0.785 cm 2

4 4
3
P 1 x 10 W 3
I  2
 1.27 x 10 W / cm  1.27 mW / cm
2 2

A 0.785 cm
 Pulsed lasers:

Energy of a pulse
Power of a pulse 
Pulse width

Average power of a pulsed laser

 Energy of all the pulses emitted in one sec ond combined
 Energy of an individual pulse x PRF

PRF (pulse repetition frequency)

Example 3.4 (Vasan)

A pulsed laser possesses 150 mJ for each pulse. If the pulse

duration is 10 ns, what is the peak pulse power?

If the PRF is 20 Hz, what is the average power?

Solution:

Energy of a pulse
Power of a pulse 
Pulse width
150 x 10 3 J
Power of a pulse  9
 15 MW
10 x 10 s

Average power of a pulsed laser

 Energy of the pulses in one sec ond combined
 20 x 150 x 10 3 J / s  3W
Example 3.5 (Vasan)

Convert 1.33 x 10-4 W/cm2 to µW/mm2

Solution:

1 W/cm2 = 106 µW/cm2 = 106 µW/102 mm2 = 104 µW/mm2

1.33 x 10-4 W/cm2 = 1.33 x 10-4 x 104 = 1.33 µW/mm2