Circuit Components

Specification
 Charge carriers
• Electric current is the flow of electric charge. This charge is
carried by particles such as electrons and ions.

• In metals the charge carriers are negatively charged

conduction electrons. They move about inside the metal,
repeatedly colliding with each other and the fixed positive
ions of the metal.

• In other conducting substances such as acids, low pressure

gases and molten salt the charge carriers consist of both
positive and negative ions.
• Good conductors have many free to move
charge carriers. Insulators have few.

• When the temperature of a semiconductor

(e.g. silicon) is increased more charge
carriers are produced and the
semiconductor turns from an insulator into a
conductor.
 Conventional current flow
+ - • In electric circuits electric current
is considered to flow out of the
positive terminal of a power supply
electron flow
around a circuit and back to the
negative terminal.

• This convention holds even when

there are no charge carriers
flowing in this direction (e.g.
conduction electrons in metals
conventional current flow flow in the opposite direction).
NTNU simulation showi
ng charge flow and curr • In many conductors (e.g. cells)
ent
charge carriers, both +ve and –ve,
are flowing in both directions at
once.
Current, charge and time
I = ΔQ / Δt
where:
I = electric current in amperes
ΔQ = quantity of charge moving in coulombs
Δt = time in seconds for charge ΔQ to flow

also: ΔQ = I x Δt
and: Δt = ΔQ / I
 Questions
1. Calculate the current flowing when a charge of 60C flows
past a point over a period of 2 minutes

2. In metals charge is carried by electrons each having

-1.6 x 10-19 coulomb of charge. Calculate how many
electrons pass a point in an electric circuit when a
current of 3A flows for 10 seconds
 Answers:
Complete:
electric charge time
current
5.0 A 250 C 50 s

600 mA 12 C 20 s

3A 9 MC 3 x 106 s

8 μA 9.6 x 10-3 C 20 minutes

4.0 A 16 kC 4000 s
 Energy transfer in an electric circuit

• The battery gives each electron a fixed amount of

energy.
• Chemical energy is transformed into electrical potential
energy.
• Work has to be done to passes electrons through
devices like the bulb.
• This causes the electrons to lose their electrical potential
energy.
• This energy is converted into thermal and light energy by
the bulb.
• Either side of the bulb there exists a difference in the
electron’s electric potential energy.
• This difference when divided by the electron’s charge is
called potential difference or voltage.
• The electrons return to the battery to receive further
electrical potential energy.
 Potential difference
The potential difference across a device is equal to the
work done (or energy transferred) per unit charge
passing through the device.

V=W/Q
where:
V = potential difference in volts
W = the work done (or energy transferred) in joules
Q = the charge moved in coulombs
also: W = V x Q
and: Q = W / V

1 volt is equivalent to 1 joule per coulomb

 Electromotive force (emf)
The electromotive force (emf) of a power supply
is equal to the energy supplied per unit charge
by the power supply
ε=W/Q
where:
ε = emf in volts
W = the energy supplied in joules
Q = the charge supplied in coulombs
also: W = ε x Q
and: Q = W / ε
 Questions
1. Calculate the potential difference across the bulb if 2kJ
of work is required to push a charge of 250C through the
bulb.

2. Calculate the energy supplied by a power supply of emf

12V when it produces a charge of 300 mC
 Complete:
Answers:
voltage work /energy charge

250 J 50 C

10 kV 50 C

3V 600 mJ

2 GJ 40 kC

50 mV 600 μC
 Electrical power
V = W / Q rearranged becomes:
W = VQ

I = ΔQ / Δt rearranged becomes:
ΔQ = I Δt or Q = I Δt

Therefore when a charge Q passes through a

device the work done is given by:
W = V x I x Δt
= I x V x Δt
But: power = work done / time
Therefore electrical power, P = W / Δt
= I x V x Δt / Δt

Electrical power, P = I x V

also: I = P / V
and V = P / I

with power in W; current in A; p.d. in V

 Questions on P = I V
1. Calculate the power produced by a bulb connected to a
230V power supply if a current of 50mA flows

2. Calculate the current drawn from a 12V battery by a 60W

device
 Answers:
Complete:
charge time current voltage work power

60 C 5A 12V

5s 3A 27W

200s 6V 12kJ

6kC 50 mins 230V

 Resistance
resistance = p.d. across a component
current through the component

R=V/I

resistance in measured in ohms (Ω)

potential difference in volts (V)
electric current in amperes (A)

also: V = I R
and I = V / R
Resistance is a measure of the difficulty of making a current pass through a substance.
It is caused by the repeated collisions between the charge carriers and the positive ions of the
substance.

Resistance simulation at Phet Resistance equation demo at Phet

 Questions
1. Calculate the resistance of a device if a current of
250mA flows when a potential difference of 6V is applied

2. Calculate the current that flows through a resistance of

4MΩ when 60V is applied across it
 Answers:
Complete:
resistance voltage current

12 V 2A

10 kΩ 4 mA

460 Ω 230 V

6V 300 μA

2 GΩ 4 nA
Measuring resistance
• Measure the current through the resistor with the
ammeter.
• Measure the potential difference across the resistor
with the voltmeter.
• Calculate resistance using R = V / I .
• Further sets of values of I and V can be obtained by
changing the setting of the variable resistor. From these
an average value for resistance can be obtained.
• Note: The resistance of the voltmeter should be as high
as possible so that the ammeter only measures the
current through the resistor.

• Fendt Ohm’s law simulation

 Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law states that the potential
difference across an ohmic conductor is
proportional to the current through it,
provided the physical conditions do not
change.
• A graph of p.d. against current
for a conductor obeying ohm’s
law will be a straight line
through the origin.
• The gradient of such a graph is
equal to the resistance of the
conductor.
• Physical conditions remaining
constant include temperature
and the dimensions of the
conductor.
 Current rules
At any junction in a
circuit, the total current
leaving the junction is
equal to the total current
entering the junction.

This rule follows from that

fact that electric charge is
Total current into the junction = 0.5 A
always conserved.
Total current out of the junction = 1.5 A
Therefore wire 3 must have 1.0 A
This rule is also known as INTO the junction
Kirchhoff’s 1st law.

NTNU Current flow in series and parallel circuits

 Components in series
Series connection of components
means:

The current entering a component

is the same as the current leaving
the component
Components do not use up current

The current passing through two

or more components in series is
the same through each component
The rate of flow of charge through Ammeters A1 and A2 are in
components in series is always the series with the bulb and cell.
same They will always show the
same current measurement.

NTNU Current flow in series and parallel circuits

 Potential difference rules
1. Components in series

For two or more components in series, the

total p.d. across all the components is equal
to the sum of the potential differences across
each component.
 The battery opposite gives
each coulomb of charge
Vs energy, Vs per coulomb

This energy is lost in three

stages V1, V2 and V3 per
coulomb.
Vs

Therefore: Vs = V1 + V2 + V3

Phet Circuit construction kit

 Potential difference rules
2. Components in parallel

The potential difference across

components in parallel is the same.
 Vs
In the circuit opposite after passing
through the variable resistor the
charge carriers have energy per
coulomb, (Vs - V1), available.

The charge carriers then pass

through both of the resistors in
parallel.

The same amount of energy per

coulomb, V2 is delivered to both
Vs resistors.

Hence the p.d. across both parallel

resistors is the same and equals V2
.
 Potential difference rules
3. For a complete circuit loop

For any complete loop in a circuit, the

sum of the emfs round the loop is equal
to the sum of the potential drops round
the loop.
In the circuit opposite the battery gives 9
joules of energy to every coulomb of
charge and so the battery emf = 9V.

In the circuit loop the variable resistor uses

up 3J per coulomb (pd = 3V) and the bulb
6J per coulomb (pd = 6V)
Therefore: Σ (emfs) = 9V
and Σ (p.d.s) = 3V + 6V = 9V
and so: Σ (emfs) = Σ (pds)

This law is a statement of conservation

of energy for a complete circuit.

This law is also known as Kirchhoff’s 2nd

law.
 Resistors in series
Resistors in series pass the same current, I.

The total potential difference across the two resistors, V is

equal to the sum of the individual pds:
V = V1 + V2

Netfirms resistor combination demo

Multimedia combination calculator
 The pd across R1, V1 is given by: V1 = I R1
and across R2, V2 = I R2

The total pd,V across the total resistance RT is equal to I RT

but: V = V1 + V2
= I R1 + I R2
therefore: I RT = I R1 + I R2
as all the currents (I) cancel
so: RT = R1 + R2

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …

The total resistance is always greater than any of the

individual resistances

Netfirms resistor combination demo Multimedia combination calculator

 Resistors in parallel
Resistors in parallel all have the same pd, V.

The total current through the two resistors, I is equal to

the sum of the individual currents:

I = I1 + I2

Netfirms resistor combination demo Multimedia combination calculator

The current through R1, I1 is given by: I1 = V / R1
and through R2, I2 = V / R2

The total current, I through the total resistance, RT is equal to V / RT

but: I = I1 + I2
= V / R1 + V / R2
therefore: V / RT = V / R1 + V / R2
as all the p.d.s (V) cancel
so: 1 / RT = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 …
RT R1 R2 R3

The total resistance is always smaller than any of the individual

resistances

Netfirms resistor combination demo Multimedia combination calculator

 Question
Calculate the total
resistance of a 4 and 6
ohm resistor connected
(a) in series, (b) in
parallel.
 Complete to the table below:
Answers:
Give all of your answers to 3 significant figures

RT / Ω
R1 / Ω R2 / Ω R3 / Ω
series parallel
6.00 3.00 two resistors
only
8.00 8.00 two resistors
only
200 0.00500 two resistors
only
10.0 6.00 14.0

9.00 9.00 9.00

Calculate the total resistance of the two circuits shown below:
5Ω 8Ω
1. 2Ω 2.
4Ω

5Ω

12 Ω
 Undergraduate level question
3. Calculate the total resistance of the circuit below:

60 Ω 60 Ω 60 Ω
The heating effect of an electric current
• When an electric current flows through an electrical
conductor the resistance of the conductor causes the
conductor to be heated.
• This effect is used in the heating elements of various
devices like those shown below:

Heating eff
ect of resist
ance Phet
 Power and resistance
Revision of previous work
When a potential difference of V causes an electric current
I to flow through a device the electrical energy converted
to other forms in time t is given by:

E=IVt

but: power = energy / time

Therefore electrical power, P is given by:
P=IV
The definition of resistance: R = V / I
rearranged gives: V = I R
substituting this into P = I V gives:
P=I2R

Also from: R = V / I
I=V/R
substituting this into P = I V gives:
P=V2/R
 Question 1
Calculate the power of a kettle’s heating element
of resistance 18Ω when draws a current of 13A
from the mains supply.
 Question 2
Calculate the current drawn by the heating element of an
electric iron of resistance 36Ω and power 1.5kW.
 Starting a car problem
A car engine is made to turn initially by using a
starter motor connected to the 12V car battery.
If a current of 80A is drawn by the motor in
order to produce an output power of at least
900W what must be the maximum resistance
of the coils of the starter motor?
Comment on your answer.
 Power distribution question
A power station produces 10MW of electrical
power.
The power station has a choice of transmitting this
power at either (i) 100kV or (ii) 10kV.
(a) Calculate the current supplied in each case.
 Characteristic curves
• These are graphs of current against potential
difference that are used to show how a
component behaves in an electric circuit.

• Negative and positive values are plotted to show

any differences in device behaviour that depend
on the current direction (e.g. diode)
 Resistivity (ρ)
Experiments show that the resistance of a
conductor is:
1. proportional to its length, L
2. inversely proportional to its cross-section
area, A
and so: R α L / A
The constant of proportionality is the
resistivity, ρ of the conductor

Therefore: R=ρL
A

Resistivity is measured in ohm-metre, Ωm.

Resistivity equation demo at Phet
KT resistivity simulation
 Variation in resistivity
• Metals and other good conductors have very low
resistivities.
(e.g. copper = 1.7 x 10 – 8 Ωm)

• Good insulators have very high resistivities.

(e.g. PVC = 1.0 x 10 + 14 Ωm)

• Semiconductors have intermediate resistivities.

(e.g. silicon = 2.3 x 10 + 3 Ωm)

• Resistivity table on Wikipedia

• Resistivity table on Wikipedia
 Superconductivity
• Superconductivity is a state where certain
materials have zero resistivity.
• This occurs at and below a critical temperature
(Tc) which depends on the material.
• Tc is usually below – 200oC.
• Applications include:
– very strong electromagnets (e.g. in MRI scanners)
– power cables to prevent wastage of electrical energy
(e.g. to supply the LHC)
This chart shows the relative electron energies when they are valence (in the shells) and
conduction (free) electrons.
These valence electrons These valence electrons These electrons can
cannot move to the can “pop out” of the move into the conduction
conduction band as the shells to be “free” band and become “free”
amount of heating required electrons at will as the if they are given some
would melt/ set fire to the energies of both are the extra energy (by heating)
material same

You do not need to mention the band gaps, valence or conduction bands in exam
questions
 Questions on resistivity
1. Calculate the resistance of a 0.30m length of copper wire
of cross-section area 5 x 10-6 m2 [resistivity of copper =
1.7 x 10-8 Ωm]

2. Repeat the above question, this time with silicon

[resistivity of silicon = 2300 Ωm]
= (2300 Ωm) x (0.30m) / (5 x 10-6 mm2)
3. Calculate the resistivity of a metal wire of cross-
section diameter 0.4mm if a 25cm length of this
wire has a resistance of 6Ω.
 Modelling current
Current depends upon several factors – the cross sectional area
of the conductor (A), the density of charged particles available
(n), the velocity at which the electrons travel through the
conductor (v):

I = nAqv

I = current (A)
n = number of charged particles per unit volume (number
density) (m-3)
A = Cross sectional area of the conductor (m2)
q = Charge on the electron (1.6x10-19C)
v= Drift velocity of the electrons (ms-1)
 Example 1

• Let's think of a current of 5 A that is flowing in a copper

wire with a cross section of 0.5 mm2 (= 0.5 x 10-6 m2)
• For copper, n = 8.5 × 1028 per m3

Calculate the drift velocity of the wire at this current.

 Example 2
In a wire – a metal atom occupies a volume which is
a cube of side 5x10-10m. Each metal atom
contributes one electron that is free to move.
Calculate: 1) the volume of each metal atom
2) The number density of charged
particles

The cross section of the wire is square with side

0.5mm. A current of 0.2A is flowing through the wire
Calculate: 3) The cross sectional area of the wire
4) The drift velocity of the electrons
 Example 3
Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in a
copper wire of cross sectional area 1mm2
when a current of 2.5A flows through it
 Example 4
In a wire – a metal atom occupies a volume which is
a cube of volume 12x10-29m3. 95% of metal atoms
contribute one electron that is free to move. The
cross section of the wire is circular with diameter
0.34mm. A current of 80mA is flowing through the
wire

Calculate: 1) The number density of charged

particles
2) The cross sectional area of the wire
3) The drift velocity of the electrons
 Example 5
Two wires – A and B are being tested for use in the
new James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). Both
wires are equal in length (1m) and in cross sectional
area (2.4x10-5m2). Both wires are being tested at a
current of 10A

Which wire will have a higher drift velocity if the number

density of A = 6.4x10-29m-3 and wire B = 7.8x10-30m-3?

Explain your choice

 Example 6
Two wires are connected to one another in series –
both are made of copper (n = 2.8x1029 m-3).

The first has diameter = 1mm. The second has

diameter 0.5mm.

Comment upon the relative drift velocities through each

section of wire.

Use mathematics to prove yourself correct.

 Resistance and temperature
1. Metallic conductors
• Resistance increases relatively slowly with
temperature
• They are said to have a ‘positive temperature
coefficient’
• Positive ions within the conductor vibrate with
greater amplitude with increasing temperature
• Charge carriers (conduction electrons) cannot
pass through the conductor as easily when a
p.d. is applied
2. Semiconductors
• Resistance decreases relatively quickly with
temperature
• Said to have a ‘negative temperature
coefficient’
• The number of charge carriers increase far
more rapidly with temperature than the
impedance caused by the more quickly
vibrating positive ions
• Application - the thermistor - used to sense
temperature changes
Potential divider theory
In the circuit opposite the current, I
flowing in this circuit = Vo / (R1 + R2 )

But the pd across, V1 = I R1

and so; V1 = Vo R1 / (R1 + R2 )
Likewise, V2 = I R2
and so; V2 = Vo R2 / (R1 + R2 )

Dividing the two equations yields:

V1 / V2 = R1 / R2

The potential differences are

in the same ratio as the
resistances.

Fendt – potential divider

Potential divider question
Calculate the pd across R2 in
the circuit opposite if the fixed
supply pd, Vo is 6V and R1 =
4kΩ and R2 = 8kΩ
 Answers:
Complete:
V0 / V R1 / Ω R2 / Ω V1 / V V2 / V

12 5000 5000

12 9000 1000

1000 1.2 10.8

230 500 46

9 400 6
Supplying a variable pd
In practice many potential
dividers consist of a single
resistor (e.g. a length of
resistance wire) split into two
parts by a sliding contact as
shown in diagram ‘a’ opposite.

In order to save space this wire

is usually made into a coil as
shown in diagram ‘b’.

Diagram ‘c’ shows the circuit

symbol of a potential divider.

Fendt – potential divider

Output variation of pd
The output pd is obtained
from connections C and B.
This output is:
- maximum when the
slider is next to position A
- minimum (usually zero)
when the slider is next to
position B
Controlling bulb brightness
As the slider of the potential divider is
moved upwards the pd across the bulb
increases from zero to the maximum
supplied by the cell.

This allows the brightness of the bulb to

be continuously variable from completely
off to maximum brightness.

This method of control is better than using

a variable resistor in series with the bulb.
In this case the bulb may still be glowing
even at the maximum resistance setting.

The volume level of a loudspeaker can be

controlled in a similar way.
Temperature sensor
• At a constant temperature the
source pd is split between the
variable resistor and the thermistor.
• The output of the circuit is the pd
across the thermistor.
• This pd is measured by the voltmeter
and could be used to control a
heater.
• If the temperature falls, the
resistance of the thermistor
increases.
• This causes the output pd to
increase bringing on the heater.
• The setting of the variable resistor
will determine how quickly the output
pd increases as the temperature
falls.
Light sensor
• At a constant level of illumination the
source pd is split between the
variable resistor and the LDR.
• The output of the circuit is the pd
across the LDR.
• This pd is measured by the voltmeter
and could be used to control a lamp.
• If the light level falls, the resistance of
the LDR increases.
• This causes the output pd to increase
bringing on the lamp.
• The setting of the variable resistor will
determine how quickly the output pd
increases as the light level falls.
Emf and internal resistance
Emf, electromotive force (ε):
The electrical energy given per unit
charge by the power supply.

Internal resistance (r):

The resistance of a power supply,
also known as source resistance.
ε = E
It is defined as the loss of potential
Q difference per unit current in the
source when current passes through
the source.
Equation of a complete circuit
The total emf in a complete
circuit is equal to the total pds.
Σ (emfs) = Σ (pds)

For the case opposite:

ε = IR + Ir
or
ε = I(R + r)
Terminal pd (V )
The pd across the external load
resistance, R is equal to the pd
across the terminals of the
power supply. This called the
terminal pd V.

therefore,
ε = IR + Ir
becomes:
ε = V + I r (as V = I R )
or
V = ε- Ir
 Lost volts (v)
I r , the lost volts, is the difference
between the emf and the terminal pd
ε = V + Ir
becomes: ε = V + v
that is:
emf = terminal pd + lost volts
This equation is an example of the
conservation of energy.
The energy supplied (per coulomb) by
the power supply equals the energy
supplied to the external circuit plus the
energy wasted inside the power
supply.

Resistance wire simulation – has internal resistance and lost volts

Question 1
Calculate the internal resistance of a
battery of emf 12V if its terminal pd falls to
10V when it supplies a current of 6A.
Question 2
Calculate the current drawn from a battery
of emf 1.5V whose terminal pd falls by
0.2V when connected to a load resistance
of 8Ω.
Question 3
Calculate the terminal pd across a power
supply of emf 2V, internal resistance 0.5Ω
when it is connected to a load resistance
of 4Ω.
 Answers:
Complete:
terminal lost
ε/V I/A R/Ω r/Ω pd / V volts / V
6 2 2

12 1 0.5

1.5 0.050 2

10 1 220 10

100 0.015 0.5

Measurement of internal resistance
1. Connect up circuit
shown opposite.
2. Measure the terminal pd
(V) with the voltmeter
3. Measure the current
drawn (I) with the
ammeter
4. Obtain further sets of
readings by adjusting the
variable resistor
5. The bulb, a resistor,
limits the maximum
current drawn from the
cell
6. Plot a graph of V
against I (see opposite)
7. Measure the gradient
which equals – r (the
negative of the internal
resistance)
 Car battery internal resistance
• A car battery has an emf of about 12V.

• Its prime purpose is to supply a current of about

100A for a few seconds in order to turn the
starter motor of a car.
• In order for its terminal pd not to fall significantly
from 12V it must have a very low internal
resistance (e.g. 0.01Ω)
• In this case the lost volts would only be 1V and
the terminal pd 11V
 High voltage power supply safety
A high voltage power supply sometimes has a large
protective internal resistance.
This resistance limits the current that can be supplied to be
well below the fatal level of about 50 mA.
For example a PSU of 3 kV typically has an internal
resistance of 10 MΩ.
The maximum current with a near zero load resistance (a
wet person)
 Maximum power transfer
The power delivered to the external load
resistance, R varies as shown on the
graph opposite.

The maximum power transfer occurs

when the load resistance is equal to the
internal resistance, r of the power
supply.

Therefore for maximum power transfer a

device should use a power supply whose
internal resistance is as close as possible
to the device’s own resistance.

e.g. The loudest sound is produced from

a loudspeaker when the speaker’s
resistance matches the internal
resistance of the amplifier.
Voltage Dividers
Today We Will Learn…
What is a voltage divider
Applications of voltage dividers
Calculations in voltage dividers
Use of the Wheatstone Bridge
What happens when voltage meets
a resistor?

Voltage falls over the resistor

 What happens when voltage
meets two resistors?
Some voltage falls in the first resistor

Some voltage falls in the second resistor

There is still a voltage in between the resistors

– it has been DIVIDED
VIN

So what is a voltage divider?

Basically a voltage divider is two resistors with a
voltage output (VOUT) between them
R1

R2 The value of VOUT depends upon two things:

1) The size of VIN
2) The values of the resistors
VIN

To calculate VOUT
The value of VOUT depends upon two things:
1) The size of VIN
R1 2) The values of the resistors

The following equation can be used to calculate

R2
VOUT:

R2
VOUT  xVIN
R1  R2
 R2
Calculate VOUT VOUT  xVIN
R1  R2
VIN
VIN = 10V
30
R1 = 10Ω VOUT  x10
R2 = 30Ω 10  30
R1
30
VOUT  x10
40

VOUT  0.75 x10

R2

VOUT  7.5V
 R2
Calculate VOUT VOUT  xVIN
R1  R2
VIN
VIN = 6V
40
R1 = 20Ω VOUT  x6
R2 = 40Ω 20  40
R1
40
VOUT  x6
60
2
VOUT  x6
R2 3
VOUT  4V
Circuit component
Answers : quiz
Circuit symbo
ls quiz
Identify the symbols below:
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and resistance, and see the current change according to Ohm's law. The sizes of the symbols in the equation
change to match the circuit diagram.
• Ohm's Law - Fendt
• Thermistor Therm.ckt - Crocodile Clip Presentation
• Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) LDR.ckt - Crocodile Clip Presentation
• Resistance in a Wire - PhET - Learn about the physics of resistance in a wire. Change its resistivity, length,
and area to see how they affect the wire's resistance. The sizes of the symbols in the equation change along
with the diagram of a wire.
• Resistance Wire Simulation- by KT - Designed for the GCSE Investigation but can also be used to show the
affect of source resistance and to show power supply maximum power.
• Conductivity- PhET - Experiment with conductivity in metals, plastics and photoconductors. See why metals
conduct and plastics don't, and why some materials conduct only when you shine a flashlight on them.
• Semiconductors - PhET - Dope the semiconductor to create a diode or transistor. Watch the electrons change
position and energy.
• Forward Biased Silicon Diode Diodef.ckt - Crocodile Clip Presentation
• Reversed Biased Silicon Diode Dioder.ckt- Crocodile Clip Presentation
 Core Notes from Breithaupt pages 46 to 55
1. What is an electric current?
2. State the relationship between charge and current and give a sample
calculation.
3. Define potential difference and give the equation for potential difference
in terms of charge and work done.
4. What is electromotive force?
5. Show how the equation P = IV can be derived from the equations defining
current and voltage.
6. What is resistance? Give the equation defining resistance and a sample
resistance calculation.
7. What is Ohm’s law? How can Ohm’s law be verified graphically?
8. Give the equation for resistivity.
9. What is superconductivity? When does it occur? Give two applications.
10. Sketch and explain the shapes of the characteristic curves of (a) a metal
wire; (b) a lamp; (c) a thermistor & (d) a diode
11. Describe and explain the resistance variation with temperature of (a)
metallic conductors & (b) semiconductors
 4.1 Current and charge
Notes from Breithaupt pages 46 & 47
1. What is an electric current?
2. State the relationship between charge and
current and give a sample calculation.

3. Explain the different ways in which a

substance can conduct electricity.
4. Draw figure 2 on page 46 and hence explain
the direction of current flow through a metal.
5. Try the summary questions on page 47
 4.2 Potential difference and power
Notes from Breithaupt pages 48 & 49
1. Define potential difference and give the equation for potential
difference in terms of charge and work done.
2. What is electromotive force?
3. Show how the equation P = IV can be derived from the equations
defining current and voltage.

4. Explain how the concept of potential difference arises from the

energy transfers in an electrical circuit.
5. Calculate the p.d. if a charge of 50C requires 300J of work.
6. Calculate the current drawn by a 15W device from a 12V power
supply.
7. Try the summary questions on page 49
 4.3 Resistance
Notes from Breithaupt pages 50 to 52
1. What is resistance? Give the equation defining resistance and a
sample resistance calculation.
2. What is Ohm’s law? How can Ohm’s law be verified graphically?
3. Give the equation for resistivity.
4. What is superconductivity? When does it occur? Give two
applications.

5. Draw a circuit diagram and explain how resistance can be

measured.
6. Calculate the resistance of a copper wire of diameter 1mm and
length 3m.
7. Compare the resistivities of copper, silicon and PVC.
8. Try the summary questions on page 52
 4.4 Components and their characteristics
Notes from Breithaupt pages 53 to 55
1. Sketch and explain the shapes of the characteristic curves of (a) a
metal wire; (b) a lamp; (c) a thermistor & (d) a diode
2. Describe and explain the resistance variation with temperature of
(a) metallic conductors & (b) semiconductors

3. Copy and learn the component symbols on page 53

4. What is (a) a battery; (b) resistor; (c) thermistor; (d) LDR; (e) diode
& (f) LED?
5. What is the purpose of a characteristic curve? Explain, with the
aid of a circuit diagram, how one can be produced
6. Try the summary questions on page 55