LESSON 3: LIFT

 What is lift?
o The aerodynamic
force which acts at
90° to the Relative
Airflow.
  The Boundary • There is a layer of air that clings
Layer to the surface of an object and
resists movement.
• The layer of fluid in
Velocity from zero at the surface
the immediate
and increases full speed of the free-
vicinity of a
flow airstream a few millimetres
bounding surface
away from the surface.
where the effects of
viscosity are
significant.
 The Laminar
• It also has less surface friction
than the turbulent boundary
Boundary Layer
layer
• Airspeed changes and because it has very little
gradually from the kinetic energy it has a greater
aerofoil surface tendency to separate from the
aerofoil surface over which it is
flowing.
 • At low angles of attack this
 The transition point is close to the trailing
point edge of the aerofoil and
gradually moves forward
• The point at which the as the angle of attack
change from laminar increases until at
flow to turbulent flow is approximately 14◦ it is
complete is the almost at the leading edge of
transition point. the aerofoil.
 The Turbulent • Despite this it has less
Boundary Layer tendency to separate from the
aerofoil surface over which it
• Has greatest is flowing than the laminar
change of boundary layer because it is
velocity and the better able to withstand the
greatest surface positive pressure gradient
friction.
 The Stagnation
Point
• The stagnation
point is that point
on an aerofoil at
which the
approaching
airflow becomes
stationary.
 ….just below the maximum
point of curvature
and
• It is located on the
leading edge of the moves downward and aft
aerofoil… along the lower surface of the
aerofoil profile as the angle of
attack increases.
 …of a symmetrical aerofoil is
the same,
 Lift production consequently at an angle of
attack of 0◦ the pressure
Symmetrical aerofoil
generated by the acceleration
• The curvature of of the airflow over the upper
the upper and surface is equal to the
lower surfaces… pressure below the lower
surface.
 • The centres of pressure of
both surface areas are exactly
opposite each.
• Therefore, the total pressure
for each surface is equal and
opposite and the resultant
force is zero.
• Consequently, there is no lift
generated and the pitching
moment is zero.
 …and that of the lower surface
decreases.
• As a result, the magnitude of the
• If the angle of attack pressure over the upper surface
of the aerofoil is decrease
positively increased
the effective camber and the magnitude of that below
of the upper surface the lower surface increase
increases
 • The greater the angle of
• The difference attack the greater is the lift
between the sizes of generated up to the stalling
the two pressure are angle.
as or the combined
pressure is upward
lift.
 no matter what the angle of attack,
and act through the same point at the
aerodynamic centre;
the total lift acts through this point
Because the centres of and there is no change to the
pressure of a pitching moment.
symmetrical aerofoil
remain exactly opposite • It remains at zero, which is one of
each other, the advantages of this type of
aerofoil.
 • As a result,
 Cambered the pressure generated by the
aerofoil acceleration of the airstream over
the upper Surface is less than that
• The curvature or beneath the lower surface.
camber of the upper • The total reactive force is the
surface of a result of the difference between
cambered aerofoil is the air pressure over the upper
greater than that of surface and beneath the lower
the lower surface. surface.
 o Negative angle of attack
• There are three different o Small positive angle of attack
groups of angles of
attack for which the o Large positive angle of attack
pressure distribution is
described.
 Negative angle of
attack

• Because of the the aerofoil will still generate a

different curvatures small amount of total lift.
of the upper and
lower surfaces of
the aerofoil even
when the angle of
attack is zero
 • At small negative angles of
attack the pressure
distributions over both
• To produce no lift at surfaces of the aerofoil are
all a cambered equal.
aerofoil must have a • Therefore, there is no
negative angle of reactive force and
attack. consequently no lift.
 Thus, a nose-down pitching moment
is created about the AC

However,
the total pressure vector
for the upper surface is
aft of the total pressure
vector for the lower
surface.
 Small positive angle of
attack
Thus, the total reactive force is
• The pressure over the upward at right angles to the
upper surface of the chordline.
aerofoil is less than the
pressure beneath the lower
surface.
 …above the upper surface of the
• It is this large excess wing, often referred to as the
of negative suction, that is the major factor
pressure… in generating lift.
 Large positive angle
of attack ….the large area of negative
pressure over the upper
• Beyond the surface of the aerofoil
stalling angle, collapses due to the
approximately 15◦ separation of the airflow from
angle of attack, the surface of the aerofoil.
 The only lift remaining is due to
the positive pressure on the lower
• The airflow changes surface of the aerofoil.
from being a laminar,
At the stalling angle the lift and
streamline flow to an
drag are both maximum.
unstable,
turbulent airflow.
 The centre of pressure
(CP)
….increasing angle of attack up
• The CP moves to the stalling angle at which
forward along the point it suddenly moves aft.
chordline with…
 ….because the angle of attack
decreases but the total lift remains
constant.
• symmetrical aerofoils at
• In level flight if the
subsonic speeds there is virtually
speed is increased the
no movement of the CP over the
CP moves aft.
range of working angles of attack
Why? because it is independent of the
angle of attack.
The basic lift equation
• What is the effect
of wing planform of
lift generations?
  Vortices
• Wingtip vortices are circular
• What is wing tip patterns of rotating air left behind
vortices? a wing as it generates lift.
 increased induced drag, which
increases the thrust required and the
fuel flow
It causes:
a reduced effective angle of
a reduced effective incidence of the tailplane that
angle of attack that decreases its longitudinal
decreases the lift stabilizing effect.
generated
 • Strong vortices are
 Wake Turbulence produced by large transport
aeroplanes that create a
• The strength and size of significant amount of
the vortices produced by turbulence behind the
an aeroplane are aeroplane along the path of
dependent on the the aircraft.
amount of lift produced.
 • This is wake turbulence that
can seriously affect the
controllability of following
aeroplanes if they are too
• The disturbance so close.
caused can extend • It is particularly important
for a considerable during the take-off phase that
distance and last the following aircraft
for several complies with the advised
minutes. separation because of this.
 • The vortex strength is
greatest for heavy
aeroplanes. At low airspeed
and in the clean
• Aircraft mass, configuration,
speed, aspect ratio which is just after rotation at
and trailing-edge take-off. Vortices only cease
flap setting influence when the nose-wheel touches
the strength of the down during landing ground
vortices. run.
 ….they produce additional
vortices at the flap outboard tips
• When trailing- that weaken the wing-tip
edge flaps are vortex and accelerate its
extended… dissipation.