1.

Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
4. Casting Quality
5. Metals for Casting
6. Product Design Considerations
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed
to remove part
› Advantage: more complex shapes possible
› Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to
make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of
metal and can be used to make many castings
› Advantage: higher production rates
› Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold
 Most widely used casting process, accounting for
a significant majority of total tonnage cast
 Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including
metals with high melting temperatures, such as
steel, nickel, and titanium
 Castings range in size from small to very large
 Production quantities from one to millions
Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) for
an air compressor frame (photo courtesy of Elkhart Foundry).
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
› Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required
to improve metallurgical properties
 The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing
sand around a pattern, then separating the mold
into two halves and removing the pattern
 The mold must also contain gating and riser
system
 If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must
be included in mold
 A new sand mold must be made for each part
produced
Figure 11.2 Steps in the production sequence in sand casting.
The steps include not only the casting operation but also pattern‑making and
mold‑making.
A full‑sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances
in the casting
 Pattern materials:
› Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it
warps
› Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
› Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
Figure 11.3 Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match‑plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
Full‑scale model of interior surfaces of part
 It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between
the mold cavity and the core to form the casting's
external and internal surfaces
 May require supports to hold it in position in the
mold cavity during pouring, called chaplets
Figure 11.4 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by
chaplets, (b) possible chaplet design, (c) casting with internal
cavity.
 Strength ‑ to maintain shape and resist erosion
 Permeability ‑ to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
 Thermal stability ‑ to resist cracking on contact with
molten metal
 Collapsibility ‑ ability to give way and allow casting
to shrink without cracking the casting
 Reusability ‑ can sand from broken mold be reused
to make other molds?
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
 Good refractory properties ‑ capacity to endure
high temperatures
 Small grain size yields better surface finish on the
cast part
 Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases
to escape during pouring
 Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to
interlocking, compared to round grains
› Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability
 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and
bonding clay
› Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
› Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
› Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
 Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture
to increase strength and/or permeability
 Green‑sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;
› “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring
 Dry‑sand mold - organic binders rather than clay
› And mold is baked to improve strength
 Skin‑dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a
green‑sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using
torches or heating lamps
 Shell Molding
 Vacuum Molding
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Investment Casting
 Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
Casting process in which the mold is a thin
shell of sand held together by thermosetting
resin binder

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell‑molding: (1) a match‑plate or

cope‑and‑drag metal pattern is heated and placed over a box
containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin.
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell‑molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and resin
fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on
the surface to form a hard shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose
uncured particles drop away;
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell‑molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for
several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is stripped from the
pattern;
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell‑molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are
assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is
accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue removed.
 Advantages of shell molding:
› Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
› Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not
required
› Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
› Can be mechanized for mass production
 Disadvantages:
› More expensive metal pattern
› Difficult to justify for small quantities
Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam
pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is
poured into mold
 Other names: lost‑foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative‑foam process, and full‑mold process
 Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,
gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
 Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag
sections
Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting process: (1) pattern of
polystyrene is coated with refractory compound;
Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting process: (2) foam
pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is compacted around
the pattern;
Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting process: (3) molten
metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms the
pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold, the
polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid,
thus the resulting mold cavity is filled.
 Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:
› Pattern need not be removed from the mold
› Simplifies and speeds mold‑making, because two mold
halves are not required as in a conventional green‑sand
mold
 Disadvantages:
› A new pattern is needed for every casting
› Economic justification of the process is highly dependent
on cost of producing patterns
 Applications:
› Mass production of castings for automobile engines
› Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are used
to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting operation
A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is melted
away prior to pouring molten metal
 "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of
"invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to
coating of refractory material around wax pattern
 It is a precision casting process - capable of
producing castings of high accuracy and intricate
detail
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are
produced, (2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a
pattern tree
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with a
thin layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by covering
the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted
position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity,
(6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is
poured, and it solidifies
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken
away from the finished casting and the parts are separated
from the sprue
Figure 11 9 A one‑piece compressor stator with 108 separate
airfoils made by investment casting (photo courtesy of
Howmet Corp.).
 Advantages of investment casting:
› Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
› Close dimensional control and good surface finish
› Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
› Additional machining is not normally required ‑ this is a
net shape process
 Disadvantages
› Many processing steps are required
› Relatively expensive process
Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster
of Paris (gypsum ‑ CaSO4‑2H2O)
 In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured
over plastic or metal pattern and allowed to set
› Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact with
water
 Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface finish
 Advantages of plaster mold casting:
› Good accuracy and surface finish
› Capability to make thin cross‑sections
 Disadvantages:
› Mold must be baked to remove moisture, which
can cause problems in casting
› Mold strength is lost if over-baked
› Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so
limited to lower melting point alloys
Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is
made of refractory ceramic material that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster
 Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other
high‑temperature alloys
 Applications similar to those of plaster mold
casting except for the metals cast
 Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also
similar
 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold
casting: a new mold is required for every casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused
many times
 The processes include:
› Basic permanent mold casting
› Die casting
› Centrifugal casting
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing
 Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys
are commonly made of steel or cast iron
 Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures
Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is
preheated and coated
Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used) are
inserted and mold is closed, (3) molten metal is poured into the mold,
where it solidifies.
 Advantages of permanent mold casting:
› Good dimensional control and surface finish
› More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold
results in a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
 Limitations:
› Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
› Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because
of need to open the mold
› High cost of mold
 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to
high volume production and can be automated
accordingly
 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies,
and certain castings for aircraft and missiles
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper‑base alloys, and cast iron
A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high
pressure
 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence
the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes
 Designed to hold and accurately close two mold
halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity
 Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects
liquid metal under high pressure into the die
 High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
 Applications limited to low melting‑point metals that
do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed and
plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber
Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (2) plunger forces
metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure
during cooling and solidification.
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die
cavity
 High production but not usually as fast as
hot‑chamber machines because of pouring
step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
 Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its
use on low melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin,
lead)
Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed
and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber
Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to flow
into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.
 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die
when it opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking
 Advantages of die casting:
› Economical for large production quantities
› Good accuracy and surface finish
› Thin sections are possible
› Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
 Disadvantages:
› Generally limited to metals with low metal points
› Part geometry must allow removal from die
A family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity
 The group includes:
› True centrifugal casting
› Semicentrifugal casting
› Centrifuge casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to
produce a tubular part
 In some operations, mold rotation commences
after pouring rather than before
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces
Figure 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting.
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts
 Molds are designed with risers at center to supply
feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
 Examples: wheels and pulleys
Mold is designed with part cavities located away
from axis of rotation, so that molten metal poured
into mold is distributed to these cavities by
centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in
other centrifugal casting methods
 Trimming
 Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment
 There are numerous opportunities for things to go
wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in the product
 The defects can be classified as follows:
› General defects common to all casting processes
› Defects related to sand casting process
 General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before
completely filling mold cavity

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

 General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there
is a lack of fusion due to premature freezing

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

 General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

 General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

Depression in surface or internal void caused by

solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

 Most commercial castings are made of alloys
rather than pure metals
› Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of
product are better
 Casting alloys can be classified as:
› Ferrous
› Nonferrous
 Geometric simplicity:
› Although casting can be used to produce complex part
geometries, simplifying the part design usually improves
castability
› Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
 Simplifies mold‑making
 Reduces the need for cores
 Improves the strength of the casting
 Corners on the casting:
› Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since they are
sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot tearing
and cracks
› Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners and
sharp edges should be blended
 Draft Guidelines:
› In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates removal of
pattern from mold
 Draft = 1 for sand casting
› In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in removal of
the part from the mold
 Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes
› Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used
 Minor changes in part design can reduce
need for coring

Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a core:
(a) original design, and (b) redesign.
 Dimensional Tolerances and Surface
Finish:
› Significant differences in dimensional accuracies
and finishes can be achieved in castings,
depending on process:
 Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand
casting
 Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die
casting and investment casting
 Machining Allowances:
› Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve the
required dimensions and part features
› Additional material, called the machining allowance, is
left on the casting in those surfaces where machining is
necessary
› Typical machining allowances for sand castings are around
1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)