Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics: Chapter 8: Flow in Pipes

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 8: FLOW IN PIPES
Department of Hydraulic Engineering

School of Civil Engineering
Shandong University
2007
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 1

Introduction
Average velocity in a pipe
Recall - because of the no-slip
condition, the velocity at the
walls of a pipe or duct flow is
zero
We are often interested only in
Vavg, which we usually call just
V (drop the subscript for
convenience)
Keep in mind that the no-slip
condition causes shear stress
Friction force of wall on fluid and friction along the pipe
walls

Introduction
For pipes of constant
diameter and
incompressible flow
Vavg stays the same
down the pipe, even if
the velocity profile
Vavg Vavg changes
Why? Conservation of
Mass
same same
same

Introduction
• For pipes with variable diameter, m is still the same
due to conservation of mass, but V1 ≠ V2
D1
D2
V1 m V2 m

LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
• Laminar flow: characterized by
smooth streamlines and highly
ordered motion.
• Turbulent flow: characterized by
velocity fluctuations and highly
disordered motion.
• The transition from laminar to
turbulent flow does not occur
suddenly; rather, it occurs over some
region in which the flow fluctuates
between laminar and turbulent
flows before it becomes fully
turbulent.

Reynolds Number
• The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the
geometry, surface roughness, flow velocity, surface
temperature, and type of fluid, among other things.
• British engineer Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) discovered
that the flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertial
forces to viscous forces in the fluid.
• The ratio is called the Reynolds number and is expressed for
internal flow in a circular pipe as

Reynolds Number
• At large Reynolds numbers, the inertial forces are large
relative to the viscous forces  Turbulent Flow
• At small or moderate Reynolds numbers, the viscous forces
are large enough to suppress these fluctuations  Laminar
Flow
• The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is
called the critical Reynolds number, Recr.
• The value of the critical Reynolds number is different for
different geometries and flow conditions. For example, Recr =
2300 for internal flow in a circular pipe.

Reynolds Number
• For flow through noncircular
pipes, the Reynolds number is
based on the hydraulic
diameter Dh defined as
Ac = cross-section area
P = wetted perimeter
• The transition from laminar to
turbulent flow also depends on
the degree of disturbance of
the flow by surface roughness,
pipe vibrations, and fluctuations
in the flow.
Reynolds Number
• Under most practical
conditions, the flow in a
circular pipe is
• In transitional flow, the

flow switches between
laminar and turbulent
randomly.

THE ENTRANCE REGION
Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform velocity.

THE ENTRANCE REGION
• The velocity profile in the fully developed region is parabolic
in laminar flow and somewhat flatter (or fuller) in turbulent
flow.
• The time-averaged velocity profile remains unchanged when
the flow is fully developed, and thus u = u(r) only.
• The velocity profile remains unchanged in the fully developed
region, so does the wall shear stress.
• The wall shear stress is the highest at the pipe inlet where the
thickness of the boundary layer is smallest, and decreases
gradually to the fully developed value. Therefore, the pressure
drop is higher in the entrance regions of a pipe.

THE ENTRANCE REGION

Entry Lengths
• The hydrodynamic entry length is usually taken to be the
distance from the pipe entrance to where the wall shear stress
(and thus the friction factor) reaches within about 2 percent of
the fully developed value.
• In laminar flow, the hydrodynamic entry length is given
approximately as
• In turbulent flow, the hydrodynamic entry length for turbulent

flow can be approximated as
• The entry length is much shorter in turbulent flow, as expected,

and its dependence on the Reynolds number is weaker.

Entry Lengths
• In the limiting laminar case of Re 2300, the hydrodynamic
entry length is 115D.
• In many pipe flows of practical engineering interest, the
entrance effects for turbulent flow become insignificant
beyond a pipe length of 10 diameters, and the hydrodynamic
entry length is approximated as
• In turbulent flow, it is reasonable to assume the flow is fully

developed for a pipe whose length is several times longer than
the length of its entrance region.

LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES
• In this section we consider the
steady laminar flow of an
incompressible fluid with
constant properties in the fully
developed region of a straight
circular pipe.
• In fully developed laminar flow,
each fluid particle moves at a
constant axial velocity along a
streamline and no motion in
the radial direction such that
no acceleration (since flow is
steady and fully-developed).

• Now consider a ring-shaped differential
volume element of radius r, thickness
dr, and length dx oriented coaxially
with the pipe. A force balance on the
volume element in the flow direction
gives
• Dividing by 2drdx and rearranging,

• Taking the limit as dr, dx → 0 gives
• Substituting  = -(du/dr) gives the desired equation,
• The left side of the equation is a function of r, and the

right side is a function of x. The equality must hold for
any value of r and x; therefore, f (r) = g(x) = constant.

• Thus we conclude that dP/dx =
constant and we can verify that
• Here w is constant since the

viscosity and the velocity profile
are constants in the fully
developed region. Then we solve
the u(r) eq. by rearranging and
integrating it twice to give
r2

• Since u/r = 0 at r = 0 (because of symmetry about the
centerline) and u = 0 at r = R, then we can get u(r)
• Therefore, the velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in a

pipe is parabolic. Since u is positive for any r, and thus the dP/dx
must be negative (i.e., pressure must decrease in the flow
direction because of viscous effects).
• The average velocity is determined from

• The velocity profile is rewritten as
• Thus we can get
• Therefore, the average velocity in fully developed laminar pipe

flow is one half of the maximum velocity.

Pressure Drop and Head Loss
• The pressure drop ∆P of pipe flow is related to the power
requirements of the fan or pump to maintain flow. Since
dP/dx = constant, and integrating from x = x1 where the
pressure is P1 to x = x1 + L where the pressure is P2 gives
• The pressure drop for laminar flow can be expressed as
• ∆P due to viscous effects represents an irreversible pressure

loss, and it is called pressure loss ∆PL to emphasize that it is a
loss.

• The pressure drop represents the pressure loss ∆PL (No
viscosity  No loss)
• In practice, it is found convenient to express the pressure loss
for all types of fully developed internal flows as
It is also called the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor, named after the

Frenchman Henry Darcy (1803–1858) and the German Julius Weisbach
(1806–1871)
• It should not be confused with the friction coefficient Cf,
Fanning friction factor, which is defined as
Cf = 2w / (V2avg) = f /4.
• The friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in a
circular pipe
(independent of the roughness)
• In the analysis of piping systems, pressure losses are

commonly expressed in terms of the equivalent fluid column
height, called the head loss hL.
(Frictional losses due to viscosity)

• Once the pressure loss (or head loss) is known, the required
pumping power to overcome the pressure loss is determined
from
• The average velocity for laminar flow in a horizontal pipe is
• The volume flow rate for laminar flow through a horizontal

pipe becomes
• This equation is known as Poiseuille’s law, and this flow is called Hagen–
Poiseuille flow.

Pressure Drop and Head Loss  Poiseuille’s law
• For a specified flow rate, the

pressure drop and thus the
required pumping power is
proportional to the length of
the pipe and the viscosity of
the fluid, but it is inversely
proportional to the fourth
power of the radius (or
diameter) of the pipe.
• Since
128L
W  Vp  V (V
    )
D 4

Pressure Drop and Head Loss (Skipped)
• In the above cases, the pressure drop equals to the head loss,
but this is not the case for inclined pipes or pipes with variable
cross-sectional area.
• Let’s examine the energy equation for steady, incompressible
one-dimensional flow in terms of heads as
Or
From the above eq., when the pressure drop = the head loss?

Pressure Drop and Head Loss  Inclined Pipes
Analogous to horizontal pipe. Read by yourself
• Similar to the horizontal pipe
flow, except there is an
additional force which is the
weight component in the flow
direction whose magnitude is

• The force balance now becomes
• which results in the differential equation
• The velocity profile can be shown to be

• The average velocity and the volume flow rate relations for
laminar flow through inclined pipes are, respectively,
• Note that  > 0 and thus sin  > 0 for uphill flow, and  < 0 and
thus sin  < 0 for downhill flow.

Laminar Flow in Noncircular Pipes
Friction factor for fully
developed laminar flow
in pipes of various
cross sections

TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES (Skipped)
• Most flows encountered in engineering practice are
turbulent, and thus it is important to understand how
turbulence affects wall shear stress.
• However, turbulent flow is a complex mechanism. The
theory of turbulent flow remains largely undeveloped.
• Therefore, we must rely on experiments and the
empirical or semi-empirical correlations developed for
various situations.

• Turbulent flow is characterized by random and rapid

fluctuations of swirling regions of fluid, called eddies,
throughout the flow.
• These fluctuations provide an additional mechanism for
momentum and energy transfer.
• In laminar flow, momentum and energy are transferred across
streamlines by molecular diffusion.
• In turbulent flow, the swirling eddies transport mass,
momentum, and energy to other regions of flow much more
rapidly than molecular diffusion, such that associated with
much higher values of friction, heat transfer, and mass
transfer coefficients.

• Even when the average flow is
steady, the eddy motion in
turbulent flow causes significant
fluctuations in the values of
velocity, temperature, pressure,
and even density (in compressible
flow).
• We observe that the
instantaneous velocity can be
expressed as the sum of an
average value and a fluctuating
component ,

• The average value of a property at some location is determined
by averaging it over a time interval that is sufficiently large so
that the time average levels off to a constant. 
• The magnitude of is usually just a few percent of , but the
high frequencies of eddies (in the order of a thousand per
second) makes them very effective for the transport of
momentum, thermal energy, and mass.
• The shear stress in turbulent flow can not be analyzed in the
same manner as did in laminar flow. Experiments show it is much
larger due to turbulent fluctuation.

• The turbulent shear stress consists of two parts: the laminar

component, and the turbulent component,
• The velocity profile is approximately parabolic in laminar flow,

it becomes flatter or “fuller” in turbulent flow.
• The fullness increases with the Reynolds number, and the
velocity profile becomes more nearly uniform, however, that
the flow speed at the wall of a stationary pipe is always zero
(no-slip condition).

Turbulent Shear Stress (Skipped)
• Consider turbulent flow in a
horizontal pipe, and the upward eddy
motion of fluid particles in a layer of
lower velocity to an adjacent layer of
higher velocity through a differential
area dA
• Then the turbulent shear stress can
be expressed as

• Experimental results show that is usually a negative quantity.
• Terms such as or are called Reynolds stresses or
turbulent stresses.
• Many semi-empirical formulations have been developed that
model the Reynolds stress in terms of average velocity
gradients. Such models are called turbulence models.
• Momentum transport by eddies in turbulent flows is analogous
to the molecular momentum diffusion.

• In many of the simpler turbulence models, turbulent shear stress
is expressed as suggested by the French mathematician Joseph
Boussinesq in 1877 as
• where t the eddy viscosity or turbulent viscosity, which

accounts for momentum transport by turbulent eddies.
• The total shear stress can thus be expressed conveniently as
• where t = t / is the kinematic eddy viscosity or kinematic

turbulent viscosity (also called the eddy diffusivity of
momentum).

• For practical purpose, eddy viscosity must be modeled as a
function of the average flow variables; we call this eddy viscosity
closure.
• For example, L. Prandtl introduced the concept of mixing length
lm, which is related to the average size of the eddies that are
primarily responsible for mixing, and expressed the turbulent
shear stress as
• lm is not a constant for a given flow and its determination is not

easy.

• Eddy motion and thus eddy diffusivities are
much larger than their molecular
counterparts in the core region of a turbulent
boundary layer.
• The velocity profiles are shown in the figures.
So it is no surprise that the wall shear stress
is much larger in turbulent flow than it is in
laminar flow.
Molecular viscosity is
a fluid property;
however, eddy
viscosity is a flow
property.
Turbulent Velocity Profile
• Typical velocity profiles for fully
developed laminar and turbulent
flows are given in Figures.
• Note that the velocity profile is
parabolic in laminar flow but is
much fuller in turbulent flow,
with a sharp drop near the pipe
wall.

• Turbulent flow along a wall can be considered to consist of four
regions, characterized by the distance from the wall.
– Viscous (or laminar or linear or wall) sublayer: where viscous effects are
dominant and the velocity profile in this layer is very nearly linear, and
the flow is streamlined.
– Buffer layer: viscous effects are still dominant: however, turbulent effects
are becoming significant.
– Overlap (or transition) layer (or the inertial sublayer): the turbulent
effects are much more significant, but still not dominant.
– Outer (or turbulent) layer: turbulent effects dominate over molecular
diffusion (viscous) effects.

(Skipped)
• The Viscous sublayer (next to the wall):
– The thickness of this sublayer is very small (typically, much
less than 1 % of the pipe diameter), but this thin layer plays a
dominant role on flow characteristics because of the large
velocity gradients it involves.
– The wall dampens any eddy motion, and thus the flow in this
layer is essentially laminar and the shear stress consists of
laminar shear stress which is proportional to the fluid
viscosity.
– The velocity profile in this layer to be very nearly linear, and

experiments confirm that.

Turbulent Velocity Profile (Viscous sublayer)
(Skipped)
• The velocity gradient in the viscous sublayer remains nearly
constant at du/dy = u/y, and the wall shear stress can be
expressed as
• where y is the distance from the wall. The square root of w /

has the dimensions of velocity, and thus it is viewed as a
fictitious velocity called the friction velocity expressed as
• The velocity profile in the viscous sublayer can be expressed in

dimensionless form as

(Skipped)
• This equation is known as the law of the wall, and it is found to
satisfactorily correlate with experimental data for smooth
surfaces for 0  yu*/  5.
• Therefore, the thickness of the viscous sublayer is roughly
• where u is the flow velocity at the edge of the viscous sublayer,

which is closely related to the average velocity in a pipe. Thus
we conclude the viscous sublayer is suppressed and it gets
thinner as the velocity (and thus the Reynolds number)
increases. Consequently, the velocity profile becomes nearly flat
and thus the velocity distribution becomes more uniform at very
high Reynolds numbers.

(Skipped)
• The quantity /u* is called the viscous length; it is used to
nondimensionalize the distance y; then we can get
nondimensionalized velocity defined as
• Then the normalized law of wall becomes simply
• Note that y+ resembles the Reynolds number expression.

Turbulent Velocity Profile (Overlap layer)
(Skipped)
• In the overlap layer, experiments confirm that the velocity is
proportional to the logarithm of distance, and the velocity profile
can be expressed as
(8-46)
• where  and B are constants and determined experimentally to

be about 0.40 and 5.0, respectively. Equation 8–46 is known as
the logarithmic law. Thus the velocity profile is
(8-47)
• It is viewed as a universal velocity profile for turbulent flow in

pipes or over surfaces.
Turbulent Velocity Profile (Overlap layer)
(Skipped)
• Note from the figure that
the logarithmic-law
velocity profile is quite
accurate for y+ > 30, but
neither velocity profile is
accurate in the buffer
layer, i.e., the region 5 <
y+ < 30. Also, the viscous
sublayer appears much
larger in the figure.

Turbulent Velocity Profile (Turbulent layer)
(Skipped)
• A good approximation for the outer turbulent layer of pipe flow
can be obtained by evaluating the constant B by setting y = R – r
= R and u = umax, an substituting it back into Eq. 8–46 together
with  = 0.4 gives
(8-48)
• The deviation of velocity from the centerline value umax - u is

called the velocity defect, and Eq. 8–48 is called the velocity
defect law. It shows that the normalized velocity profile in the
turbulent layer for a pipe is independent of the viscosity of the
fluid. This is not surprising since the eddy motion is dominant in
this region, and the effect of fluid viscosity is negligible.

(Skipped)
• Numerous other empirical velocity profiles exist for turbulent
pipe flow. Among those, the simplest and the best known is the
power-law velocity profile expressed as
• where the exponent n is a constant whose value depends on the

Reynolds number. The value of n increases with increasing
Reynolds number. The value n = 7 generally approximates many
flows in practice, giving rise to the term one-seventh power-law
velocity profile.

(Skipped)
• Note that the power-law profile
cannot be used to calculate wall
shear stress since it gives a
velocity gradient of infinity
there, and it fails to give zero
slope at the centerline. But
these regions of discrepancy
constitute a small portion of
flow, and the power-law profile
gives highly accurate results for
turbulent flow through a pipe.

• (Skipped)
The characteristics of the flow in viscous sublayer are very
important since they set the stage for flow in the rest of the pipe.
Any irregularity or roughness on the surface disturbs this layer and
affects the flow. Therefore, unlike laminar flow, the friction factor
in turbulent flow is a strong function of surface roughness.
• The roughness is a relative concept, and it has significance when
its height  is comparable to the thickness of the laminar sublayer
(which is a function of the Reynolds number). All materials appear
“rough” under a microscope with sufficient magnification. In fluid
mechanics, a surface is characterized as being rough when  >
sublayer and is said to be smooth when  < sublayer . Glass and plastic
surfaces are generally considered to be hydrodynamically smooth.

The Moody Chart
• The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends
on the Reynolds number and the relative roughness /D, which is
the ratio of the mean height of roughness of the pipe to the pipe
diameter.
• It is no way to find a mathematical closed form for friction factor by
theoretical analysis; therefore, all the available results are obtained
from painstaking experiments.
• Most such experiments were conducted by Prandtl’s student J.
Nikuradse in 1933, followed by the works of others. The friction
factor was calculated from the measurements of the flow rate and
the pressure drop.
• Functional forms were obtained by curve-fitting experimental data.

The Moody Chart
• In 1939, Cyril F. Colebrook combined the available data for
transition and turbulent flow in smooth as well as rough pipes into
the Colebrook equation:
• In 1942, the American engineer Hunter Rouse verified Colebrook’s

equation and produced a graphical plot of f.
• In 1944, Lewis F. Moody redrew Rouse’s diagram into the form
commonly used today, called Moody chart given in the appendix
as Fig. A–12.

The Moody Chart
• The Moody chart presents the Darcy friction factor for pipe flow
as a function of the Reynolds number and /D over a wide range.
It is probably one of the most widely accepted and used charts in
engineering. Although it is developed for circular pipes, it can also
be used for noncircular pipes by replacing the diameter by the
hydraulic diameter.
• Both Moody chart and Colebrook equation are accurate to ±15%

due to roughness size, experimental error, curve fitting of data, etc

Equivalent roughness values for new
commercial pipes

Observations from the Moody chart
• For laminar flow, the friction factor decreases with increasing
Reynolds number, and it is independent of surface roughness.
The friction factor is

a minimum for a
smooth pipe and
increases with
roughness
The data in the
transition region
are the least
reliable.

Observations from the Moody chart
• In the transition region, at small relative roughnesses, the
friction factor increases and approaches the value for smooth
pipes.
• At very large Reynolds numbers, the friction factor curves
corresponding to specified relative roughness curves are
nearly horizontal, and thus the friction factors are
independent of the Reynolds number. The flow in that region
is called fully rough turbulent flow or just fully rough flow

Types of Fluid Flow Problems
• In design and analysis of piping systems, 3 problem types
are encountered
– Determine p (or hL) given L, D, V (or flow rate)
•Can be solved directly using Moody chart and Colebrook equation
– Determine V, given L, D, p
– Determine D, given L, p, V (or flow rate)
• Types 2 and 3 are common engineering design problems,
i.e., selection of pipe diameters to minimize construction
and pumping costs
• However, iterative approach required since both V and D
are in the Reynolds number.

Types of Fluid Flow Problems
• Explicit relations have been developed which
eliminate iteration. They are useful for quick, direct
calculation, but introduce an additional 2% error

EXAMPLE 8–3: Determining the Head Loss in a
Water Pipe
Solution:
•Using
Wateran equation
at 60°F (solver or an iterative scheme, the friction factor is
= 62.36
determined to be
lbm/ft3 and  f==7.536
0.0174.
 10-4
lbm/ft · s) is flowing steadily in
Therefore,
a 2-in-diameter horizontal
pipeismade
which greaterofthan
stainless
4000. steel at the flow is turbulent. The relative
Therefore,
a rate ofof0.2
roughness theftpipe
3/s. Determine
is calculated using Table 8–2
the pressure drop, the head
loss, and the required
Thepumping
friction factor
power caninput
simplyforbeflow
determined from the Moody chart. To
avoid any reading error, we determine f from the Colebrook equation:
over a 200-ft-long section of
the pipe.

EXAMPLE 8–4 Determining the Diameter of an
Solution:
Air Duct
This is a problem of the third type. We can solve this problem by
three different
• Heated air at 1approaches:
atm and 35°C is
(1)toAnbeiterative
transportedapproachin aby150-m-
assuming a pipe diameter, calculating
the head loss, comparing the result to the specified head loss,
long circular
The roughness is plastic duct atzero
approximately a for a plastic pipe (Table 8–2).
and repeating calculations until the calculated head loss matches
rate
Solving of
thefor
0.35 m 3/s, If the head
the fourvalue;
specified equations, then we can get
(2)loss in the
Writing all pipe is not to
the relevant exceed (leaving the diameter as an
equations
20 m, determine
unknown) the minimum
and solving them simultaneously using an equation
Notediameter
that Re >of
solver; 4000, and thus the turbulent flow assumption is
the duct.
verified.
The
(3)diameter
Using thecan also
third be determined
Swamee–Jain directly
formula. Wefrom
willthe third Swamee–
demonstrate the
Jain formula
use of theto belast two approaches.
Method (2)

EXAMPLE 8–5 Determining the Flow Rate of Air
Solution:
in a Duct
The new flow rate can also be determined directly from the second
Swamee–Jain formula to be
Method
• Reconsider Example 8–4. Now
(2)
the duct length is doubled
while its diameter is
maintained constant. If the
total head loss is to remain
constant, determine the drop
in the flow rate through the
duct.
Solving them
Then the drop in the flow rate becomes

Minor Losses
Piping systems include fittings, valves, bends, elbows,
tees, inlets, exits, enlargements, and contractions.
These components interrupt the smooth flow of fluid and
cause additional losses because of flow separation and
mixing.
The head loss introduced by a completely open valve
may be negligible. But a partially closed valve may cause
the largest head loss in the system which is evidenced
by the drop in the flow rate.
We introduce a relation for the minor losses associated
with these components as follows.

Minor Losses
• KL is the loss coefficient (also called

the resistance coefficient).
• Is different for each component.
• Is assumed to be independent of Re
(Since Re is very large).
• Typically provided by manufacturer
or generic table (e.g., Table 8-4 in
text).
Minor Losses
The minor loss occurs locally across the minor loss
component, but keep in mind that the component
influences the flow for several pipe diameters downstream.
This is the reason why most flow meter manufacturers
recommend installing their flow meter at least 10 to 20
pipe diameters downstream of any elbows or valves.
Minor losses are also expressed in terms of the
equivalent length Lequiv, defined as

Minor Losses
• Total head loss in a system is comprised of major
losses (in the pipe sections) and the minor losses (in
the components)
i pipe sections j components
• If the piping system has constant diameter

Head loss at the inlet of a pipe
• The head loss at the inlet of a pipe is a
strong function of geometry. It is almost
negligible for well-rounded inlets (KL =
0.03 for r/D = 0.2), but increases to
about 0.50 for sharp-edged inlets
(because the fluid cannot make sharp
90° turns easily, especially at high
velocities; therefore, the flow separates
at the corners).
• The flow is constricted into the vena
contracta region formed in the
midsection of the pipe.

Head loss at the inlet of a pipe

Whether laminar or turbulent, the fluid leaving the pipe loses all of its kinetic energy as it mixes with the
reservoir fluid and eventually comes to rest

Gradual Expansion and Contraction (based on the velocity in the
smaller-diameter pipe)
Typos in the text

Piping Networks and Pump Selection
• Two general types of
networks
– Pipes in series
• Volume flow rate is constant
• Head loss is the summation of
parts
– Pipes in parallel
• Volume flow rate is the sum
of the components
• Pressure loss across all
branches is the same

• For parallel pipes, perform CV analysis between points A and B
• Since p is the same for all branches, head loss in all branches
is the same

• Head loss relationship between branches allows the following
ratios to be developed
• Real pipe systems result in a system of non-linear equations.

• Note: the analogy with electrical circuits should be obvious
– Flow flow rate (VA) : current (I)
– Pressure gradient (p) : electrical potential (V)
– Head loss (hL): resistance (R), however hL is very nonlinear

• The analysis of piping networks, no matter how
complex they are, is based on two simple principles:
– Conservation of mass throughout the system must be

satisfied.
– Pressure drop (and thus head loss) between two junctions
must be the same for all paths between the two junctions.

When a piping system involves pumps and/or turbines,
pump and turbine head must be included in the energy
equation
The useful head of the pump (hpump,u) or the head

extracted by the turbine (hturbine,e), are functions of
volume flow rate, i.e., they are not constants.
Operating point of system is where the system is in
balance, e.g., where pump head is equal to the head
losses.
Pump and systems curves
Supply curve (or characteristic
or performance curves) for
hpump,u: determine
experimentally by
manufacturer.
System (or demand) curve
determined from analysis of
fluid dynamics equations
Operating point is the
intersection of supply and
demand curves
If peak efficiency is far from
operating point, pump is wrong
for that application.
Examples on pages from 358 to 364
In the text

EXAMPLE 8–7 Pumping Water through Two
Parallel Pipes
• Water at 20°C is to be pumped from a reservoir (zA = 5 m) to
another reservoir at a higher elevation (zB = 13 m) through
two 36-m-long pipes connected in parallel.

•
Parallel Pipes
Water is to be pumped by a 70 percent efficient motor–pump
combination that draws 8 kW of electric power during
operation. The minor losses and the head loss in pipes that
connect the parallel pipes to the two reservoirs are
considered to be negligible. Determine the total flow rate
between the reservoirs and the flow rate through each of the
parallel pipes.
• Solution:
• Assumptions:
 1 The flow is steady and incompressible.
 2 The entrance effects are negligible, and the flow is fully
developed.

Parallel Pipes
• Solution:
 3 The elevations of the reservoirs remain constant.
 4 The minor losses and the head loss in pipes other than the
parallel pipes are said to be negligible.
 5 Flows through both pipes are turbulent (to be verified).
• The useful head supplied by the pump to the fluid is

determined from

Parallel Pipes
• The energy equation for a control volume between these two
points simplifies to
or
Where
• We designate the 4-cm-diameter pipe by 1 and the 8-cm-diameter pipe by
2. The average velocity, the Reynolds number, the friction factor, and the
head loss in each pipe are expressed as

Parallel Pipes

Parallel Pipes
• This is a system of 13 equations in 13 unknowns, and their

simultaneous solution by an equation solver gives

Parallel Pipes
• Note that Re > 4000 for both pipes, and thus the assumption
of turbulent flow is verified.
• Discussion The two parallel pipes are identical, except the
diameter of the first pipe is half the diameter of the second
one. But only 14 percent of the water flows through the first
pipe. This shows the strong dependence of the flow rate (and
the head loss) on diameter.

FLOW RATE AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
• Please see section 8-8 in the text for the detail. There
are various devices to measure flow rates.
• Two optical methods used to measure velocity fields

will be introduced:
– Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV)
– Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)

Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV)
• LDV is an optical technique to measure flow velocity at any
desired point without disturbing the flow.

Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV)
• When a particle traverses these
fringe lines at velocity V, the
frequency of the scattered fringe
lines is.
• Particles with a diameter of 1 m

• The measurement volume
resembles an ellipsoid, typically of
0.1 mm diameter and 0.5 mm in
length.

Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
• PIV provides velocity
values simultaneously
throughout an entire
cross section, and thus it
is a whole-field
technique.

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics: Chapter 8: Flow in Pipes

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Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8: FLOW IN PIPES

Department of Hydraulic Engineering

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 1

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 2

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 3

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 4

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 5

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 6

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 7

• In transitional flow, the

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 9

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 10

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 11

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 12

• In turbulent flow, the hydrodynamic entry length for turbulent

• The entry length is much shorter in turbulent flow, as expected,

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 13

• In turbulent flow, it is reasonable to assume the flow is fully

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 14

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 15

• Dividing by 2drdx and rearranging,

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 16

• Substituting  = -(du/dr) gives the desired equation,

• The left side of the equation is a function of r, and the

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 17

• Here w is constant since the

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 18

• Therefore, the velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in a

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 19

• Thus we can get

• Therefore, the average velocity in fully developed laminar pipe

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 20

• The pressure drop for laminar flow can be expressed as

• ∆P due to viscous effects represents an irreversible pressure

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 21

It is also called the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor, named after the

• In the analysis of piping systems, pressure losses are

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 23

• The average velocity for laminar flow in a horizontal pipe is

• The volume flow rate for laminar flow through a horizontal

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 24

• For a specified flow rate, the

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 25

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 26

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 27

• The force balance now becomes

• which results in the differential equation

• The velocity profile can be shown to be

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 28

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 29

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 30

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 31

• Turbulent flow is characterized by random and rapid

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 32

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 33

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 34

• The turbulent shear stress consists of two parts: the laminar

• The velocity profile is approximately parabolic in laminar flow,