INTRODUCTION

TO
COMPUTING
Jeziah Lois C. Catanus
INDUSTRY
IN THE
PROFESSION
IT Manufacturing Companies:
 Apple Inc. (AAPL)  Hon Hai Precision Industry Co. Ltd. (HNHPF)
 Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd  International Business Machines Corp (IBM)
 Dell Technologies Inc.

Software Development Companies:

 DCSL Software  Emergent Software
 TATVA Software  MerixStudio

 KANDA Software

IT Services Company:
 Microsoft Corporation  Oracle Corporation
 Adobe Inc.  SAP America Inc.
 Electronics Art Inc.
IT Professions:
oDatabase Administrator - administrators handle the storage, organization, and security of data, including financial records
or customer information.
oComputer System Analyst - study computer systems and procedures and devise solutions to increase organizational
efficiency.
oWeb Developers - design and create both the technical and visual aspects of a website.
oSoftware Developers - create applications and systems that operate devices, control networks, and allow users to complete
specific tasks.
oHardware Engineers - research, develop, and test computer systems and their individual components.

ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct

General Ethical Principle:
 Contribute to society and to human well-being  Fair and take action not to discriminate
 Avoid harm  Respect the work to produce new ideas
 Honest and trustworthy  Respect privacy
 Honor confidentiality
Professional Responsibilities:
Striveto achieve high quality in both the processes and products of professional work.
Maintain high standards of professional competence, conduct, and ethical practice.
Know and respect existing rules pertaining to professional work.
Accept and provide appropriate professional review.
Give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of computer system and their impacts, including analysis of possible risks.
Perform work only in areas of competence.
Foster public awareness and understanding of computing, related technologies, and their consequences.
Access computing and communication resources only when authorized or when compelled by the public good.
Design and implement systems that are robustly and usably secure.

Professional Leadership Principle:

 Ensure that the public good is the central concern.
 Articulate, encourage acceptance of, and evaluate fulfillment of social responsibilities by members of the organization or
group.
 Articulate, apply, and support policies and processes that reflect the principles of the code.
 Manage personnel and resources to enhance the quality of working life;
 Create opportunities for members of the organization or group to grow as professionals.
Use care when modifying or retiring systems:
Recognize and take special care of systems that become integrated into the infrastructure of society.
Compliance with the Code;
Uphold, promote, and respect.
Treat violations of the code as inconsistent with membership in the ACM.

Compliance with the Code:

 Uphold, promote, and respect the principles of the Code.

 Treat violations of the Code as inconsistent with membership in the ACM.

IT Organizations
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) - ACM community is as diverse as the subfields that comprise computer
science, from educators and researchers in academia to practitioners in project management, industrial research, and software
development, engineering, and application design.
 Computing Technology Industry Association (CompTIA) - CompTIA is the association representing the international
technology community.
Association of Software Professionals (ASP) - ASP is a professional trade association of software developers who are
creating and marketing leading-edge applications.

The 10 Commandments of Computer Ethics

 Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people.
 Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s computer work.
 Thou shalt not snoop around in other people’s computer files.
 Thou shalt not use a computer to steal.
 Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness.
 Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
 Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper compensation.
 Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s intellectual output.
 Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are designing.
 Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your fellow humans.
 APPRECIATION
OF
COMPUTING
IN
DIFFERENT FIELDS
Computer Applications in Sociology

IT roles in biology:
IT-aided instruments, such as gene sequencers, DNA microarrays, and microscopes, are used for data collection.
Large shared, Internet-connected databases, such as gene and protein data banks, allow many researchers to obtain and
contribute data to large problems.
Data analysis methods are used in assembling and searching gene sequences.
Imaging and visualization, such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and tomography are important in several areas of
bioscience.
Modeling and simulation are used to model protein folding and to help understand complex biological systems such as
cells, tissues, organisms, and populations.
Electronic communication technologies are used to share scientific information and aid scientific collaboration.

IT substantial impact on biology:

 IT makes a great revolution in remote education;
 IT leads to a remarkable improvement in biological simulation; and
 Information Technology makes it visible in laboratory studies.
Different Computer Applications in Sociology:
 Sociology and the Web  Retrieving and Managing Data
 Publications on Sociological Computing  Qualitative Computing
 Computer Applications in Sociology  Simulating and Modeling
 Writing and Publishing  Computer-Assisted Data Collection
 Communicating Electronically (E- mail, etc.)  Visualization and Graphics
 Statistics  Teaching and Learning
 Accessing

Impact of Technology in the Environment:

The negative impact of technology on the environment are air, soil and water pollution, depletion of natural resources,
global warming and solid wastes.
The positive impact of technology on the environment are monitoring of greenhouse gas emissions, Using an Infrared
Sensor for reliable Methane monitoring and using a UAV drone attached to a gas sensor to measure harmful gases.
 Evolution of Computer Gaming Technology:
1952 - Nimrod Computer Game 1985 - Super Mario Bros 2001 - GTA 3
1958 - Tennis for Two 1986 – Outrun 2002 - Serious Sam: The First Encounter
1971 - Computer Space 1987 - Leisure Suit Larry 2003 - Medal of Honor: Allied Assault
1972 – Pong 1988 - Super Mario Bros 3 2004 - Half Life 2
1973 - Space Race 1989 - Xenon 2 2005 - World of Warcraft
1974 - Clean Sweep 1990 - Prince of Persia 2006 - Need for Speed: Most Wanted
1975 - Anti-Aircraft 1991 – Prehistorik 2007 - Crysis
1976 – Blockade 1992 - Wolfenstein 3D 2008 - Assassin’s Creed
1977 - Indy 500 1993 - Day of the Tentacle 2009 - Call of Duty Modern Warfare 2
1978 - Sea Wolf II 1994 - The Lion King 2010 - Red Dead Redemption
1979 - Crash 1995 - Command & Conquer 2011 - World of Tanks
1980 - Pac-Man 1996 - Tomb Raider 2012 - Battlefield 3
1981 - Ms. Pacman 1997 – GTA 2013 - GTA 5
1982 – Paratrooper 1998 - Half Life 2014 - Wolfenstein The New Order
1983 - Super Gridder, Hunchback 1999 - Quake 3 2015 - Tom Clancy’s The Division
1984 - Sokoban 2000 - Max Payne
 DIFFERENT
SPECIALIZATION
 Computer and Network Security - Network security is a broad term that covers a multitude of technologies,
devices and processes. In its simplest term, it is a set of rules and configurations designed to protect the integrity,
confidentiality and accessibility of computer networks and data using both software and hardware technologies. Every
organization, regardless of size, industry or infrastructure, requires a degree of network security solutions in place to
protect it from the ever-growing landscape of cyber threats in the wild today.

Mobile and Web Computing - The web and mobile computing major is about combining people and technology
to bring out the best in both. In this web development degree students learn how to integrate the back end code with the
front end user experience, and are able to do it across several languages and platforms, to impact the app design process
at all levels. Students are highly valuable to employers seeking today’s most skilled application developers.

Software Engineering - Software engineering is the process of analyzing user needs and designing, constructing,
and testing end-user applications that will satisfy these needs through the use of software programming languages. It is
the application of engineering principles to software development.
Professions

Computer and Network Security Mobile and Web Computing Software Engineering
 Firewall Specialist or Administrator  Mobile App Developer  Application Analyst

 Disaster Recovery Specialist  Mobile App Engineer  Database Administrator

 Forensics Specialist  User Experience Architect  Forensic Computer Analyst

 Wireless Security Expert  Mobile Security Systems Expert  IT Technical Support Officer
 Information Security Officer  Game Developer  Software Tester

 FBI Investigator  Sound Designer

 System Analyst
Primary Jobs Secondary Jobs
 Software Engineering  System Analyst
 System Software Developer  Data Analyst
 Research and Development Computing  Computer Engineering
Professional
 Electrical Engineering
 Applications Software Developer
 Electronics Engineering
 Computer Programmer
 Entertainment and Multimedia Computing
 Mathematic
 Physic and Statistic
EVOLUTION
OF
COMPUTING
 Before 1935, a computer was a person who performs arithmetic calculations. Between 1935 and 1945 the definition referred to
a machine, rather than a person.

Computing Milestone and Machines Evolution

14th C. - Abacus 1969 - The Internet, originally the ARPAnet (Advanced
17th C. - Slide rule Research Projects Agency network), began as a military
computer network.
1642 - Pascaline
1804 - Jacquard loom 1969-1977 - integrated circuits (IC) based technology.
1850 - Difference Engine, Analytical Engine 1976 - CRAY 1
1939 -1942 - Atanasoff Berry Computer 1976 - Apples/MACs
1940s - Colossus 1978 to 1986 - large scale integration (LSI)
1946 - ENIAC 1990 - World Wide Web
1951-1959 - vacuum tube based technology. 1992 - Bill Gates' Microsoft Corp. released Windows 3.1
1950s -1960s - UNIVAC - "punch card technology’’ 1995 - large commercial Internet service providers (ISPs)
1960-1968 - transistor based technology. 1996 - Personal Digital Assistants
Pioneer Computer Scientist
Charles Babbage (1792-1871) -  Difference Engine, Analytical Engine.
Alan Turing - 1912-1954 - British Codebreaker. 
J. von Neumann - (1903-1957) - created on the foundation of the work of Alan Turing
John V. Atanasoff - (1904 - 1995) - one of the contenders as the inventor of the first computer.
J. Presper Eckert, Jr. and John W. Mauchly - completed the first programmed general purpose electronic digital computer
Konrad Zuse-- (1910-1995) - designed mechanical and electromechanical computers. Zuse's Z1 during WW II.
H. Edward Roberts - developed the MITS Altair 8800

Women Pioneers in Computing

Ada Byron King - Portrait .Countess of Lovelace - a mathematician and wrote extensive notes on Charles Babbage's
calculating machine.
Edith Clarke (1883-1959) - She developed and disseminated mathematical methods that simplified calculations, received the
first Electrical Engineering degree
Grace Murray Hopper (1906-1992) - received the Computer Sciences "Man of The Year Award", the first woman to be
inducted into the Distinguished Fellow British Computer Society in 1973.
Erna Hoover - invented a computerized switching system for telephone traffic.
Kay McNulty Mauchly Antonelli and Alice Burks - made tables of firing and bombing trajectories, as part of the war effort.
 Adele Goldstine - assisted in the creation of the ENIAC and wrote the manual to use it.
Joan Margaret Winters - scientific programmer in SLAC Computing Services
Alexandra Illmer Forsythe (1918-1980) - She wrote the first computer science textbook. calculations for
Evelyn Boyd Granville - he developed computer programs that were used for trajectory analysis in the Mercury
Project.

First Generation of Computers: 1940s-1950s: (Vacuum Tubes and Plugboards)

First generation computers were actually the first general purpose and true digital computers.
A list of popular first generation computers:
 The ENIAC (1946)  EDVAC (1950)
 EDSAC (1949)  UNIVAC I (1951)

They:
Solved one problem at a time Used machine language
 Used input based on punched cards  Had limited primary memory
 Had their outputs displayed in print outs  Were programming only in machine language
 Used magnetic tapes  Used vacuum tubes for circuitry
 Electron emitting metal in vacuum tubes burned out easily  Were expensive to operate
 Used magnetic drums for memory  Were power hungry
 Were huge, slow, expensive, and many times undependable  Generated a lot of heat which would make them malfunction

Second Generation of Computers: 1950s-1960s: (Transistors and Batch Filing)

These were computers which used transistors instead of vacuum tubes.
Other examples of 2nd Gen computers:
 IBM-7000  IBM-7094
 CDC 3000 series  MARK III
 UNIVAC 1107  Honeywell 400

They:
 Used transistors  Allowed assembly and high-level languages
 Faster and more reliable than first generation systems  Stored data in magnetic media
 Were slightly smaller, cheaper, faster  Were still costly
 Generated heat though a little less  Needed air conditioning
Still relied on punch cards and printouts for input/output  Introduced assembly language and operating system
software
 Third Generation of Computers: 1960-1970s (Integrated Circuits and Multi-Programming)

3rd generation computers used the integrated circuit (IC) microchip instead of transistors.
Other examples of third generation computers:
 IBM-360  IBM-370

 Personal Data Processor (PDP)

They:
 Used ICs  Data was input using keyboards
 Used parallel processing  Output was visualized on the monitors
 Were slightly smaller, cheaper, faster  Used operating systems, thus permitting multitasking
 Used motherboards  Simplified programming languages i.e. BASIC
 Fourth Generation of Computers: 1970s to Present (The Microprocessor, OS, and GUI)

The birth of the microprocessor was at the same time the birth of the microcomputer.
Examples of open source and free software:
 Ubuntu OS  MySQL

 Mozilla Firefox browser  VLC media player

 Open Office

Examples of popular personal computer categories:

 Desktops  Nettops
 Laptops  Tablets
 Workstations  Smartphones

They:
 Used CPUs which contained thousands of transistors Were cheap
 Were much smaller and fitted on a desktops, laps and palms  Had GUI
 Used a mouse  Were very fast
 Were used in networks
Registerover 19 billion transistors in high-end microprocessors IBM z9 (2005), z10 (2008) and z13 (2015) are examples of
(Compare with 2,300 in Intel 4004) mainframes.
 The fourth generation of mainframes and supercomputers evolved  Cray 1 (1975), Fugitsu K (2011), Titan (2013), Sunway TaihuLight
to powerful systems: (2016) are examples of supercomputers

Fifth Generation of Computers: The Present and The Future

Fifth generation computing is built on technological advancement gained in the previous computer generations.
The larger goals in AI is to indulge devices to:
 Understand natural language  Implement expert input in medical and other complex fields
 Recognize human speech  Exercise heuristic classification analysis
 See the world in three-dimensional perspective  Implement neural networks
 Play interactive games

Ongoing AI projects:
Virtual personal assistants e.g. Siri, Google Now and Briana.
Smart cars e.g. Tesla's autopilot cars and Google's self-driving cars.
News generation tools like Wordsmith are used by Yahoo and Fox to generate news snippets.
Computer Aided Diagnosis for detection of cancer.
KEY COMPONENTS
OF A
COMPUTER SYSTEM,
OPERATING SYSTEM
Computer System
Components of a Computer System
Input Devices (keyboard, mouse etc.) Secondary Storage Devices (hard disk drive, CD/DVD drive etc)
Output Devices (Monitor, Speakers etc) Processor and Primary Storage Devices (CPU, RAM

 Features of Internal Hardware

Internal computer components are designed to fit INSIDE the computer system and they all carry out important roles.

Motherboard
 The motherboard is central to any computer system.
 All components plug into the motherboard either directly (straight into the circuit board) or indirectly (via USB ports).

 Once connected to the motherboard, the components can work together to form the computer system.

 Components communicate and send signals to each other via the BUS Network.

Processor (CPU / Central Processing Unit)
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer.
 The CPU 'controls' what the computer does and is responsible for performing calculations and data processing. It also

handles the movement of data to and from system memory.

 CPU's come in a variety of speeds which are known as 'clock rates'. Clock rates are measured in 'Hertz'. Generally, the

faster the clock rate, the faster the performance of the computer.
 There are two main brands of CPU currently on the market... AMD and Intel.

Internal Memory (RAM and ROM)

 There are two types of internal memory - RAM and ROM.
 RAM and ROM are used to store computer data and this can be directly accessed by the CPU.
 RAM and ROM are sometimes referred to as 'Primary Storage'.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

 RAM is used to temporarily store information that is currently in use by the computer. This can include anything from
word documents to videos.
RAM can be read from and written to and so the information stored in RAM can change all the time (it depends what

tasks you are using the computer for).

 RAM is a fast memory. Data can be written to and read from RAM very quickly. RAM is generally measured in GB
(Gigabytes).
 RAM is Volatile Memory. This means that information stored in RAM is deleted as soon as the computer is turned off.

 The more RAM you have installed in your computer -- the faster it can perform. You can open and use more programs at

the same time without slowing the computer down.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

 ROM is used to permanently store instructions that tell the computer how to boot (start up). It also loads the operating
system (e.g. Windows).
 These instructions are known as the BIOS (Basic input/output system) or the boot program.

 Information stored in ROM is known as READ ONLY. This means that the contents of ROM cannot be altered or added to

by the user.
 ROM is fast memory. Data stored in ROM can be accessed and read very quickly.

 ROM is Non-Volatile memory. This means that stored information is not lost when the computer loses power.

Other examples of ROM include:

 DVD/CD ROMS bought in stores containing pre-recorded music and movie files. These are played back at home but cannot
be altered.
 ROM in printers which is used to store different font types.
Video Card (aka graphics card)
 Graphics cards are hardware devices that plug into the motherboard and enables the computer to display images on the
monitor.
 Graphics cards usually require the installation of software alongside the hardware. The software instructs the computer how

to use the graphics card and also allows you to alter settings to change image quality and size.

Sound Card
 Sound cards are internal hardware devices that plug into the motherboard.
 sound card's main function is to allow the computer system to produce sound but they also allow users to connect

microphones in order to input sounds into the computer.

 Sound cards are also useful in the conversion of analogue data into digital and vice versa.

Storage Devices (secondary backing storage)

 Secondary storage devices are used to store data that is not instantly needed by the computer.
 Secondary storage devices permanently store data and programs for as long as we need. These devices are also used to back-

up data in case original copies are lost or damaged.

There are two categories of storage devices:
 Internal Storage - Internal Hard Disk Drives
 External Storage - External Hard Disk Drive, Memory Stick etc.
Features of External Hardware
External computer components connect to a computer system from OUTSIDE. They are not necessary for the system to
function but make our experiences easier or better.

Input Devices
 Input devices are pieces of hardware that get raw data into the computer ready for processing.
 Processing involves taking raw data and turning it into more useful information.

Input devices fall into two categories:

Manual Input Devices - Need to be operated by a human to input information
Automatic Input Devices - Can input information on their own.

Output Devices
When inputted raw data has been processed it becomes usable information. Output devices are pieces of hardware that send
this usable information out of the computer.
Some output devices send information out temporarily and some send information out permanently:
Temporary Output Devices - E.g. Monitors which constantly refresh the outputted image on the screen
Permanent Output Devices - E.g. Printers which output information onto paper as a hard copy.
Peripheral Devices
 Almost all input and output devices are known as 'Peripheral devices'.
 These are 'non-essential' hardware components that usually connect to the system externally
 Peripherals are called non-essential because the system can operate without them.

Operating System
An operating system or OS is software installed on a computer's hard drive that enables the computer hardware to
communicate and operate with the computer software. Without a computer operating system, a computer and software
programs would be useless.
Functions
 Manage all of the computer hardware inside your computer and all of the connected peripherals. In some situations, the OS
may need the assistance from additional device drivers.
 Manage all of the software and communication between software programs installed on the computer.

 Handle all of the data generated by the software.

Examples of computer operating systems

Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows is the most common and used operating system on computers today, with Microsoft Windows
10 being the most recently released Windows version. The operating system is used PC and IBM-compatible computers.
 Apple macOS
With Apple computers, macOS is the primary operating system used with Apple desktop and laptop computers.
Linux
Linux is a free and open source operating system used with PC and IBM compatible computers. Because the operating
system is open source, it is used to create many variants of Linux, including Ubuntu, Debian, Red Hat, and Slackware.

Chromium / Chrome OS
Chrome OS is an operating system used with Google Chromebooks.

Mobile operating systems

Android
Android is an operating system used with smartphones and tablets. Today, Android is the most popular operating system
worldwide because of how many smartphones use a variant of the Android operating system.
Apple iOS
The Apple iOS operating system used is the operating system used with the Apple iPhone and iPad.

Where is the operating system stored on a computer?

With most computers, the operating system is stored on the primary hard drive inside the computer. Computers operating
systems can also be installed and loaded from an external hard drive, disc drive, or flash drive.
When installing the operating system, the install files are stored on a CD, DVD, or USB flash drive. Early computer
operating systems used multiple floppy diskettes to install an operating system.
MALWARE
 Malware, short for “malicious software,” refers to any intrusive software developed by cybercriminals (often
called “hackers”) to steal data and damage or destroy computers and computer systems. Examples of common
malware include viruses, worms, Trojan viruses, spyware, adware, and ransom ware.

Types of Malware:
Viruses - a piece of code that inserts itself into an application and executes when the app is run.
Worms - target vulnerabilities in operating systems to install themselves into networks. They may gain access in
several ways: through backdoors built into software, through unintentional software vulnerabilities, or through flash
drives.
Trojan - disguises itself as desirable code or software. can take control of victims’ systems for malicious purposes.
Trojans may hide in games, apps, or even software patches, or they may be embedded in attachments included in
phishing emails.
Ransomware - is software that uses encryption to disable a target’s access to its data until a ransom is paid. but there
is no guarantee that payment will result in the necessary decryption key or that the decryption key provided will function
properly.
Adware - tracks a user’s surfing activity to determine which ads to serve them. Danger in adware is the erosion of a
user’s privacy.
Anti-Malware Solution:

Norton 360 - it uses advanced machine learning, heuristic scanning, and a massive malware database to detect and
remove even the most sophisticated malware.

Security features like:

 Network firewall.  Encrypted storage.
 Anti-phishing protection.  Parental controls.
 Virtual private network (VPN).  Webcam protections (for PC).
 Password manager.

Bitdefender - has a fast, cloud-based malware scanner which keeps devices 100% protected without affecting CPU
performance.

different antivirus plans

 Bitdefender Antivirus Plus  Bitdefender Total Security
 Bitdefender Internet Security
 McAfee Total Protection’s - anti-malware engine utilizes artificial intelligence and machine learning — it detected
and removed every single piece of malware in my testing, ranking alongside Norton in terms of perfect malware
detection and removal.

Features:
 Firewall.  VPN.
 Wi-Fi protection (Home Network Security).  Password manager.
 Anti-phishing protection.  Permanent file deletion.
 System tune-up tools.  Identity theft protection (US users only).

TotalAV - is simple, easy to use, and provides some of the most comprehensive malware removal and protection
around.

Features:
 Web attack prevention.  Password manager.
 Performance optimization tools.  Identity theft protection (additional purchase).
 VPN.
 Avira - has a strong, fast, lightweight, and free malware scanner — it’s offered with no restrictions in Avira’s free
package.

Features:
 Web privacy extension (Safe Shopping).  VPN (500 MB monthly limit).
 Performance optimizer.  Password manager.

Intego’s - macOS malware removal software provides significant improvements over macOS’s built-in anti-
malware protections.

Features:
 Smart firewall.  Parental controls.
 System clean-up and optimization tools.  Data backup.
COMPUTER

SECURITY
Cybersecurity
Cyber security is the practice of defending computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, networks, and data from
malicious attacks. It's also known as information technology security or electronic information security.

Types of cyber security threats

Phishing - is the practice of sending fraudulent emails that resemble emails from reputable sources. The aim is to steal sensitive
data like credit card numbers and login information. It’s the most common type of cyber attack. You can help protect yourself
through education or a technology solution that filters malicious emails.
Ransomware - is a type of malicious software. It is designed to extort money by blocking access to files or the computer system
until the ransom is paid. Paying the ransom does not guarantee that the files will be recovered or the system restored.

Malware - is a type of software designed to gain unauthorized access or to cause damage to a computer.
Social engineering is a tactic that adversaries use to trick you into revealing sensitive information. They can solicit a monetary
payment or gain access to your confidential data. Social engineering can be combined with any of the threats listed above to make
you more likely to click on links, download malware, or trust a malicious source.
 Cyber attacks can cause electrical blackouts, failure of military equipment and breaches of national security secrets. They can
result in the theft of valuable, sensitive data like medical records. They can disrupt phone and computer networks or paralyze
systems, making data unavailable.

Common Cyber Security Attack

Phishing Attacks
Phishing is the technique to steal a user’s data from the internet or computer-connected device.
How to prevent phishing scams?
Know what a phishing scam looks like Don’t ignore updates
Don’t click on a random link Install firewalls
Get free anti-phishing add-ons Don’t be tempted by pop-ups
Don’t give your information to an unsecured site Don’t give out important information unless it is important
Change passwords regularly Have a Data Security Platform to spot signs of an attack

Man-in-the-middle attack
The man-in-the-middle attack is a security breach where cybercriminals place themselves between the
communication system a client and the server.
How to prevent man-in-the-middle attacks?
Strong WEP/WAP Encryption on Access Points Force  HTTPS
Strong Router Login Credentials Public Key Pair Based Authentication
Virtual Private Network

SQL Injection Treat

SQL is one acronym for StructuredQuery Language and an SQL attack is one of the oldest cybersecurity
breaches.
Types of SQL Injection attack
Intradermal (ID) injection Intramuscular (IM) injection
Subcutaneous (SC) injection

How to prevent SQL injection attack?

Validate User Inputs Raise Virtual Or Physical Firewalls
Sanitize Data By Limiting Special Characters Harden Your OS And Applications
Enforce Prepared Statements And Parameterization Reduce Your Attack Surface
Use Stored Procedures In The Database Establish Appropriate Privileges And Strict Access 
Actively Manage Patches And Updates Limit Read-Access
 Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attack
This cyber-attack overwhelms a network, system, or computer with unwanted traffic. The attacker bombards the
system or server with high-volume traffic, that its bandwidth and resources cannot handle.

Drive-by Attack
Drive-by attacks are security threats that download unwanted materials from a website. It is also one of the most
common ways of spreading malware.

Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)

Cross-site scripting is a cyber-attack where an attacker sends malicious code to a reputable website. It is an attack
that can happen only when a website allows a code to attach to its own code.

How to prevent cross-site scripting attack?

Filter input on arrival Use appropriate response headers
Encode data on output Content Security Policy

Password Attack
As its name implies, password attack is an attempt to steal passwords from a user.
Two common techniques they use to get a user’s password are:
Brute-force guessing
 This entails using different random words, hoping that one of them would be the correct password
 If the hacker knows his or her victim, they can apply logic while guessing and try the person’s title, name, job, or
hobbies as the password
Dictionary Attack
 In this case, the hacker uses some of the common passwords to gain access to the user’s device
 For instance, 1234 or ‘abcde’ are passwords that a lot of people use on their devices and these two are at the top of
the list of common ones an attacker will try out
To protect yourself from either of these two types of password attacks, implement a lockout policy to your cybersecurity.

Ransomware Attack
One cyber threat with scary consequences is the ransomware attack. Moreover, in this type of security breach, the
malware prevents users from accessing the data they stored on a server or database.

Eavesdropping Attack
Other names for eavesdropping attack are snooping, network security threat, or sniffing. It is very similar to the
man-in-the-middle attack, but it does not allow a secure connection between the user and a server. Theft of data and
information occurs after you send them out, so they do not get across to the server.
 AI-Powered attacks
Artificial intelligence (AI) has been making ground-breaking success in recent years. Almost every gadget has
some application of AI in it, which heightens the scare of an AI-powered cyber-attack. Such security threats will have
the most devastating effects as autonomous cars, drones, and computer systems can be hacked by artificial
intelligence. AI can also shut down power supplies, national security systems, and hospitals.

Malware
Malware is a common type of cyber threat, defined as malicious software which gets installed into the system when
the user clicks on a dangerous link or email.

How to prevent malware?

Regularly update your computer and software Limit your file-sharing
Use a non-administrator account whenever possible Don’t trust pop-up windows that ask you to download software
Be careful while opening unknown email attachments or
images

Zero-day exploit
A zero-day attack is an attack done by hackers when the network, hardware or software vulnerability is
announced publicly. They make use of this time to exploit the vulnerabilities before the solution is implemented.
How to prevent a Zero-Day Attack?
Use an advanced, proactive email security solution Implement network access control
Educate users Use IPsec
Deploy a web application firewall

Advanced Persistent Threats (APT)

An advanced persistent threat occurs when an attacker gains unauthorized access to a system or network and
remains undetected for a long duration.

The goals of APTs are:

Cyber Espionage Hacktivism
eCrime for financial gain Destruction

How to prevent Advanced Persistent Threats (APT)?

Install a Firewall Create a Sandboxing Environment
Enable a Web Application Firewall Install a VPN
Install an Antivirus Enable Email Protection
Implement Intrusion Prevention Systems
 NETWORKS,
INTERNET
AND
INTERNET PROTOCOLS
 Computer Network
Computer network is a telecommunication channel using which we can share data with other computers or devices, connected
to the same network. It is also called Data Network. The best example of computer network is Internet.
Computer network does not mean a system with one Control Unit connected to multiple other systems as its slave.
A set of devices often mentioned as nodes connected by media link is called a Network.

Properties of a Good Network

1. Interpersonal Communication: We can communicate with each other efficiently and easily.
2. Resources can be shared: We can share physical resources by making them available on a network.
3. Sharing files, data: Authorized users are allowed to share the files on the network.

Basic Communication Model

 Uses of Computer Networks
Business Applications
Resource Sharing Server-Client model
Home Aplication
Mobile User

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various nodes(sender and receiver)
through lines of connection.

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single cable. When it has exactly
two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology:
It transmits data only in one direction. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology:
 It is cost effective.  Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
 Used in small networks.  Easy to expand joining two cables together.
 It is easy to understand.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology:
 Cables fails then whole network fails.  If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance
of the network decreases.
 Cable has a limited length.  It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer, with the last one
connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

 A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to
the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node.
Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
 The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is
called Dual Ring Topology.
  In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the
second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
 Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network,
till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or  Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens  Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network
can transmit data. activity.
 Cheap to install and expand  Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all
others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.  Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fiber or coaxial cable.
 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
Advantages of Star Topology Disadvantages of Star Topology
Fast performance with few nodes and low network Cost of installation is high.
traffic. Expensive to use.
Hub can be upgraded easily. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because
Easy to troubleshoot. all the nodes depend on the hub.
Easy to setup and modify. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its
Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the capacity.
nodes can work smoothly.

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to each other. Mesh
has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

Two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology:

MESH Topology: Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data to reach the
destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links, and it avoids those node
etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.
MESH Topology: Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The network is robust,
and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology
Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but some
devices are only connected to two or three devices.
Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

 Fully connected.  Robust.  Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Each connection can carry its own data load.  Installation and configuration is difficult.
 It is robust.  Cabling cost is more.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.  Bulk wiring is required.
 Provides security and privacy.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology. It should
at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology
Ideal if workstations are located in groups. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 Extension of bus and star topologies.  Heavily cabled.
 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.  Costly.
 Easily managed and maintained.  If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Error detection is easily done.  Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in an office in one
department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology
(ring topology and star topology).

Features of Hybrid Topology

 It is a combination of two or topologies  Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies
included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.  Complex in design.
Effective.  Costly.
Scalable as size can be increased easily.
Flexible.

Types of Communication Networks

 Local Area Network (LAN) Wireless
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)  Inter Network (Internet)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

How internet works?

The internet is a network of networks. It works by using a technique called packet switching and by relying on standardized
networking protocols tha all comuters can interpret.
The internet has one very simple job, to move computerized information (known as data) from one place to another.
The internet work because open standards allow every betwork to connect to every other network. This is what makes it
possible for anyone to create content, offer services and sell products without requiring permission from a central authority.
Internet Ecosystem
A term used to describe the organizations and communities that helps the internet work and evolve.
The internet ecosysytem term implies that the rapid and continued development and adaptation of internet technologies can be
attribited to the involvement of e board range actors; open transport and collaboration process; and the use of products and
infrastructure with dipersed ownership and control.

Internet Protocols
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
a connection oriented protocol and offers end-to-end packet delivery. It acts as back bone for connection.
A network communication protocol designed to send data packets over the internet.
A transport layer protocol in the OSI layer and is use to create a connection between remote computer by transporting and
ensuring the delivery of messages over supporting network s and the internet.

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Protocol is connectionless and unreliable protocol. It ensures no guarantee of successfully transmission of data.
Is a set of rules for routing and addressing packets of data so that they can travel across networks and arrived at the correct
destination.
A connection free protocol that is an integral part of the internet protocol suite and is responsible for the addressing and
fragmentation of data packets in digital networks.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Like IP, UDP is connectionless and unreliable protocol. It doesn’t require making a connection with the host to exchange data.
Since UDP is unreliable protocol, there is no mechanism for ensuring that data sent is received.
One of the core members of the internet protocol suite.
A transport layer protocol in an open system interconnection (OSI) for client-server network appliation.
A communication protocol that is primarily used for establishing low-latency and loss-tolerating connections between
applications on the internet.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is used to copy files from one host to another.
A client-server protocol used for transferring files to or from a host computer.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

Trivial File Transfer Protocol is also used to transfer the files but it transfers the files without authentication. Unlike FTP,
TFTP does not separate control and data information. Since there is no authentication exists, TFTP lacks in security features
therefore it is not recommended to use TFTP.
Is mostly used to read and write file/mail to or from a remote server.
The basic form of file trasnfer protocol (FTP)
An internet-standard protocol for file transfer that uses minimal capability and minimal overhead.
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP is a communication protocol. It defines mechanism for communication between browser and the web server. It is also
called request and response protocol because the communication between browser and server takes place in request and
response pairs.
An application layer protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information system.
is the essential means of communication between web users and the servers that maintan the website themselves.
 INTRODUCTION
TO HTML5
AND
CASCADING STYLE SHEET
 HTML
What is HTML?
 HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language
 HTML is the standard markup language for creating Web pages
 HTML describes the structure of a Web page
 HTML consists of a series of elements
 HTML elements tell the browser how to display the content
 HTML elements label pieces of content such as "this is a heading", "this is a paragraph", "this is a link", etc.

Here are some of the most common uses for HTML:

o Web development. Developers use HTML code to design how a browser displays web page elements, such as text, hyperlinks,
and media files. 
o Internet navigation. Users can easily navigate and insert links between related pages and websites as HTML is heavily used to
embed hyperlinks. 
o Web documentation. HTML makes it possible to organize and format documents, similarly to Microsoft Word.
How Does HTML Work
The average website includes several different HTML pages. For instance, a home page, an about page, and a contact page would all
have separate HTML files.
HTML documents are files that end with a .html or .htm extension. A web browser reads the HTML file and renders its content so that
internet users can view it.

All HTML pages have a series of HTML elements, consisting of a set of tags and attributes. HTML elements are the building blocks of
a web page. A tag tells the web browser where an element begins and ends, whereas an attribute describes the characteristics of an element.

The three main parts of an element are: 

oOpening tag – used to state where an element starts to take effect. The tag is wrapped with opening and closing angle brackets.
For example, use the start tag <p> to create a paragraph. 
oContent – this is the output that other users see. 
oClosing tag – the same as the opening tag, but with a forward slash before the element name. For example, </p> to end a
paragraph.
The combination of these three parts will create an HTML element:
<p>This is how you add a paragraph in HTML.</p>
Another critical part of an HTML element is its attribute, which has two sections – a name and attribute value. The name
identifies the additional information that a user wants to add, while the attribute value gives further specifications. 
 For example, a style element adding the color purple and the font-family verdana will look like this:
<p style="color:purple;font-family:verdana">This is how you add a paragraph in HTML.</p>
Another attribute, the HTML class, is most important for development and programming. The class attribute adds style information
that can work on different elements with the same class value. 
Most elements have an opening and a closing tag, but some elements do not need closing tags to work, such as empty elements.
These elements do not use an end tag because they do not have content:
<img src="/" alt="Image">

This image tag has two attributes – an src attribute, the image path, and an alt attribute, the descriptive text. However, it does not have
content nor an end tag. 
Lastly, every HTML document must start with a <!DOCTYPE> declaration to inform the web browser about the document type. With
HTML5, the doctype HTML public declaration will be:
<!DOCTYPE html>
Most Used HTML Tags and HTML Elements
Block-Level Elements
A block-level element takes up the entire width of a page. It always starts a new line in the document. For example,
a heading element will be in a separate line from a paragraph element.
Every HTML page uses these three tags:
<html> tag is the root element that defines the whole HTML document.
<head> tag holds meta information such as the page’s title and charset.
<body> tag encloses all the content that appears on the page.
 Other popular block-level tags include:
Heading tags – these range from <h1> to <h6>, where heading h1 is largest in size, getting smaller as they move up to h6. 
Paragraph tags – are all enclosed by using the <p> tag.
List tags – have different variations. Use the <ol> tag for an ordered list, and use <ul> for an unordered list. Then, enclose individual list
items using the <li> tag. 

Inline Elements
An inline element formats the inner content of block-level elements, such as adding links and emphasized strings. Inline elements are
most commonly used to format text without breaking the flow of the content. 
For example, a <strong> tag would render an element in bold, whereas the <em> tag would show it in italics. Hyperlinks are also inline
elements that use an <a> tag and an href attribute to indicate the link’s destination:
<a href="https://example.com/">Click me!</a>

HTML Evolution – What Differs Between HTML and HTML5?

The first version of HTML consisted of 18 tags. Since then, each new version came with new tags and attributes added to the
markup. The most significant upgrade of the language so far was the introduction of HTML5 in 2014.
The main difference between HTML and HTML5 is that HTML5 supports new kinds of form controls. HTML5 also introduced
several semantic tags that clearly describe the content, such as <article>, <header>, and <footer>.
Pros and Cons of HTML
Just like any other computer language, HTML has its strengths and limitations. Here are the pros and cons of HTML:
Pros:
Beginner-friendly. HTML has a clean and consistent markup, as well as a shallow learning curve.
Support. The language is widely used, with a lot of resources and a large community behind it.
Accessible. It is open-source and completely free. HTML runs natively in all web browsers.
Flexible. HTML is easily integrable with backend languages such as PHP and Node.js.
Cons:
Static. The language is primarily used for static web pages. For dynamic functionality, you may need to use JavaScript or a back-end
language such as PHP.
Separate HTML page. Users have to create individual web pages for HTML, even if the elements are the same. 
Browser compatibility. Some browsers adopt new features slowly. Sometimes older browsers don’t always render newer tags.

How Are HTML, CSS, and Javascript Related

HTML is used to add text elements and create the structure of content. However, it is not enough to build a professional and fully
responsive website. So, HTML needs the help of Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and JavaScript to create the vast majority of website content. 
CSS is responsible for stylings such as background, colors, layouts, spacing, and animations. On the other hand, JavaScript adds dynamic
functionality such as sliders, pop-ups, and photo galleries. These three languages are the fundamentals of front-end development.
 Cascading Style Sheets
What is CSS?
CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets
CSS describes how HTML elements are to be displayed on screen, paper, or in other media
CSS saves a lot of work. It can control the layout of multiple web pages all at once
External stylesheets are stored in CSS files

How is CSS Different From HTML?

The first thing to understand when approaching the topic of CSS is when to use a styling language like CSS and when to use a markup
language such as HTML.
o All critical website content should be added to the website using a markup language such as HTML.
o Presentation of the website content should be defined by a styling language such as CSS.

CSS Syntax
CSS Syntax includes selectors, properties, values, declarations, declaration blocks, rulesets, at-rules, and statements.
A selector is a code snippet used to identify the web page element or elements that are to be affected by the styles.
A property is the aspect of the element that is to be affected. For example, color, padding, margin, and background are some of the most
commonly used CSS properties.
 A value is used to define a property. For example, the property color might be given the value of red like this: color: red;.
The combination of a property and a value is called a declaration.
In many cases, multiple declarations are applied to a single selector. A declaration block is the term used to refer to all of the
declarations applied to a single selector.
A single selector and the declaration block that follows it in combination are referred to as a ruleset.
At-rules are similar to rulesets but begin with the @ sign rather than with a selector. The most common at-rule is the @media rule which
is often used to create a block of CSS rules that are applied based on the size of the device viewing the web page.
Both rulesets and at-rules are CSS statements.

Preparing HTML Markup for Styling

CSS should be used to add content to a web page. That task is best handled by markup languages such as HTML and XML. Instead, CSS
is used to pick items that already exist on a web page and to define how each item should appear.
In order to make it as easy as possible to select items on a web page, identifiers should be added to elements on the webpage. These
identifiers, often called hooks in the context of CSS, make it easier to identify the items that should be affected by the CSS rules.
Classes and IDs are used as hooks for CSS styles. While the way CSS renders is not affected by the use of classes and hooks, they give
developers the ability to pinpoint HTML elements that they wish to style.
Classes and IDs aren’t interchangeable. It’s important to know when to use each.
When to Use Classes
Use classes when there are multiple elements on a single web page that need to be styled. To pinpoint those links you could add a class to
each of those links or the container holding the links. Then, you could specify the styles using the class and be sure that they would only be
applied to the links with that class attribute.

When to Use IDs

Use IDs for elements that only appear once on a web page. For example, if you’re using an HTML unordered list for your site navigation,
you could use an ID such as nav to create a unique hook for that list.

When Not to Use Hooks

You don’t have to add a class or ID to an HTML element in order to style it with CSS. If you know you want to style every instance of a
specific element on a web page you can use the element tag itself.

Best Practices for Preparing Your Markup for Styling

Now that you know how classes, IDs, and element tags can be used as hooks for CSS rulesets, how can you best implement this
knowledge to write markup that makes it easy to pinpoint specific elements?
o Apply classes liberally and consistently. Use classes for items that should be aligned in one direction or the other, and for any
elements that appear repeatedly on a single web page.
o Apply IDs to items that appear only once on a web page. For example, use an ID on the div that contains your web page content,
on the ul that that contains the navigation menu, and on the div that contains your web page header.
Ways of Linking CSS Rules to an HTML Document
There are three ways of adding CSS rules to a web page:
o Inline styles
o Internal stylesheets
o External stylesheets
In the vast majority of cases, external stylesheets should be used. However, there are instances where inline styles or internal stylesheets
may be used.

Inline Styles
Inline styles are applied to specific HTML elements. The HTML attribute style is used to define rules that only apply to that specific
element. Here’s a look at the syntax for writing inline styles.
<h1 style="color:red; padding:10px; text-decoration:underline;">Example Heading</h1>
That code would cause just that heading to render with red underlined text and 10 pixels of padding on all sides. There are very few
instances where inline styles should be used. In nearly all cases they should be avoided and the styles added to a stylesheet.

Internal Stylesheets
The earlier examples in this tutorial make use of internal stylesheets. An internal stylesheet is a block of CSS added to an HTML
document head element. The style element is used between the opening and closing head tags, and all CSS declarations are added between
the style tags.
External Stylesheets
External stylesheets are documents containing nothing other than CSS statements. The rules defined in the document are linked to one or
more HTML documents by using the link tag within the head element of the HTML document.
To use an external stylesheet, first create the CSS document.
Now that we have an external stylesheet with some styles, we can link it to an HTML document using the link element.
When this HTML document is loaded the link tag will cause the styles in the file styles.css to be loaded into the web page. As a result, all
level 1 heading elements will appear with red text, underlined, and with 10 pixels of padding applied to every side.

When to Use Each Method

In nearly all cases external stylesheets are the proper way to style web pages. The primary benefit to using external stylesheets is that
they can be linked to any number of HTML documents. As a result, a single external stylesheet can be used to define the presentation of
an entire website.
Internal stylesheets may be used when designing a simple one-page website. If the website will never grow beyond that single initial
page using an internal stylesheet is acceptable.
Inline styles are acceptable to use in two instances:
1. When writing CSS rules that will only be applied to a single element on a single web page.
2. When applied by a WYSIWYG editor such as the tiny MCE editor integrated into a content management system such as WordPress.
In all other cases, inline styles should be avoided in favor of external stylesheets.
How CSS Works
When writing CSS, there are many times that rules are written that conflict with each other. For example, when styling headers, all of the
following rules may apply to an h1 element.
o An element-level rule creating consistent h1 rendering across all pages of the website.
o A class-level rule defining the rendering of h1 elements occurring in specific locations – such as the titles of blog posts.
o An id-level element defining the rendering of an h1 element used in just one place on a one or more web pages – such as the
website name.
CSS styles follow two rules that you need to understand to write effective CSS. Understanding these rules will help you write CSS that is
broad when you need it to be, yet highly-specific when you need it to be.
The two rules that govern how CSS behaves are inheritance and specificity.

Cascading Inheritance
Why are CSS styles called cascading? When multiple rules are written that conflict with each other, the last rule written will be
implemented. In this way, styles cascade downward and the last rule written is applied.
This same cascading effect comes into play when using external stylesheets. It’s common for multiple external stylesheets to be used.
When this happens, the style sheets are loaded in the order they appear in the HTML document head element. Where conflicts between
stylesheet rules occur, the CSS rules contained in each stylesheet will overrule those contained in previously loaded stylesheets.
Inheritance of styles is another example of the cascading behavior of CSS styles. When you define a style for a parent element the child
elements receive the same styling.
Not every property passes from a parent to its child element. Browsers deem certain properties as non-inherited properties. Margins are
one example of a property that isn’t passed down from a parent to a child element.
Specificity
The second rule that determines which rules are applied to each HTML element is the rule of specificity.
CSS rules with more specific selectors will overrule CSS rules with less specific selectors regardless of which occurs first. As we
discussed, the three most common selectors are element tags, classes, and ids.
o The least specific type of selector is the element level selector.
o When a class is used as a selector it will overrule CSS rules written with the element tag as the selector.
o When an ID is used as a selector it will overrule the CSS rules written with element or class selectors.
Another factor that influences specificity is the location where the CSS styles are written. Styles written inline with the style attribute
overrule styles written in an internal or external stylesheet.
Another way to increase the specificity of a selector is to use a series of elements, classes, and IDs to pinpoint the element you want to
address. For example, if you want to pinpoint unordered list items on a list with the class “example-list” contained with a div with the id
“example-div” you could use the following selector to create a selector with a high level of specificity.
div#example-div > ul.example-list > li {styles here}
While this is one way to create a very specific selector, it is recommended to limit the use of these sorts of selectors since they do
take more time to process than simpler selectors.
Once you understand how inheritance and specificity work you will be able to pinpoint elements on a web page with a high degree
of accuracy.
What Can CSS Do?
A better question might be: “What can’t CSS do?”
CSS can be used to turn an HTML document into a professional, polished design. Here are a few of the things you can accomplish wish
CSS:
o Create a flexible grid for designing fully responsive websites that render beautifully on any device.
o Style everything from typography, to tables, to forms, and more.
o Position elements on a web page relative to one another using properties such as float, position, overflow, flex, and box-sizing.
o Add background images to any element.
o Create shapes, interactions, and animations.
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
(ORGANIZATION
AND
ARCHITECTURE)
 Computer System Organization
A computer system is made up of various components. The components can be hardware or software. Because these systems are so
massively complex, the components are organized in layers.

Layers of Organization

Layer People Domain

Application Programs Application Programmers

Software
System Utility Programs
System Programmers
Operating System

I/O System (BIOS)

Computer System Computer Engineers

Hardware
CPU Computer Architects

Memories, Logic Circuits, Flip-Flops, Gates Logic Designers

Transistors, Diodes, Resistors, Power Supplies Materials Scientists

 The Computer System Layer

Devices

Input Devices Output Devices Storage Devices

Keyboard Voice Recognizer Screen Disk Drive

Mouse Scanner Television CD Drive
Light Pen Fingerprint Scanner Printer (2D or 3D) DVD Drive
Joystick Card Reader Plotter USB Flash Drive
Joyswitch Paddle Film Recorder Solid State Drive (SSD)
Trackball Game Controller Projector Tape Drive
Tablet Data Glove Hologram Generator
Track Pad Wand Robot Arm
Surface Video Camera Speaker
Digitizer Eye Tacker Headphones
Microphone Motion Sensor Voice Synthesizer
Card Punch
 Software Layers
Applications Software Systems Software
Written for people Written for computers
Deals with human-centered abstractions like customers, Deals with computer-centered concepts like registers and
products, orders, employees, players, users memory locations
Solves problems of interest to humans, usually in application Controls and manages computer systems
areas like health care, game playing, finance, etc.
Concerned with anything high-level Concerned with data transfer, reading from and writing to files,
compiling, linking, loading, starting and stopping programs, and
even fiddling with the individual bits of a small word of memory
Is almost always device or platform independent; programs Deals with writing device drivers and operating systems, or at
concentrate on general-purpose algorithms least directly using them; programmers exploit this low-level
knowledge
Is often done in languages like JavaScript, Perl, Python, Ruby, Is often done in assembly language, C, C++, and Rust where
Lisp, Elm, Java, and C# that feature automatic garbage collection programmers have to manage memory themselves
and free the programmer from low-level worries
Is done in languages that generally have big fat runtime systems Generally feature extremely small run-time images, because
they often have to run in resource constrained environments
If done properly, can be very efficient: good garbage collection If done properly, can be very efficient: you can take advantage
schemes allow much more efficient memory utilization than the of the hardware
usual memory micro-management common in C programs
 Architecture of Computer System

Computer is an electronic machine that makes performing any task very easy. In computer, the CPU executes each instruction provided to
it, in a series of steps, this series of steps is called Machine Cycle, and is repeated for each instruction. One machine cycle involves fetching
of instruction, decoding the instruction, transferring the data, executing the instruction.
Computer system has five basic units that help the computer to perform operations, which are given below:
Input Unit Arithmetic Logic Unit
Output Unit Control Unit
Storage Unit

Input Unit
Input unit connects the external environment with internal computer system. It provides data and instructions to the computer system.
Commonly used input devices are keyboard, mouse, magnetic tape etc.
Input unit performs following tasks:
Accept the data and instructions from the outside environment. Supply the converted data to computer system.
Convert it into machine language.
Output Unit
It connects the internal system of a computer to the external environment. It provides the results of any computation, or instructions to the
outside world. Some output devices are printers, monitor etc.

Storage Unit
This unit holds the data and instructions. It also stores the intermediate results before these are sent to the output devices. It also stores the
data for later use.
The storage unit of a computer system can be divided into two categories:
Primary Storage: This memory is used to store the data which is being currently executed. It is used for temporary storage of data. The
data is lost, when the computer is switched off. RAM is used as primary storage memory.
Secondary Storage: The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than primary memory. It is used for permanent storage of data.
Commonly used secondary memory devices are hard disk, CD etc.

Arithmetic Logical Unit

All the calculations are performed in ALU of the computer system. The ALU can perform basic operations such as addition, subtraction,
division, multiplication etc. Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit to ALU. When the
operations are done, the result is transferred back to the storage unit.
Control Unit
It controls all other units of the computer. It controls the flow of data and instructions to and from the storage unit to ALU. Thus it is also
known as central nervous system of the computer.

CPU
It is Central Processing Unit of the computer. The control unit and ALU are together known as CPU. CPU is the brain of computer
system. It performs following tasks:
It performs all operations. It controls all the units of computer.
It takes all decisions.