Instrumentation and Data

Acquisition Systems : ME-819

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dr. Khurram Kamal

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Part I :Measurement and
Instrumentation

General Measuring System

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 Introduction to Measurement
1.2 Measurement system Applications
Application of Measuring Instruments may be classified into three major
areas:
(a)Regulating Trade. Applying instruments that measure physical
quantities such as length, volume and mass in terms of standard units.
(b)Monitoring Functions. These provide information necessary (to allow a
human being) to control some domestic or industrial operation or process e.g.
a gardener may use a thermometer to determine whether he should turn the
heat on in his greenhouse or open the windows if it is too hot. The majority
of monitoring functions exist to provide the information necessary to allow a
human being to control some industrial operation or process.
(c)Use in feedback Control Systems. Use as part of automatic feedback
control systems forms the third application area of measurement systems. see
next two slides for a typical feedback block diagram and comments.

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 Introduction to Measurement …
 Systems can be classified broadly as open loop and closed
loop
 Open loop system

Actuating Process
Device
Desired
Output
Output
Response
Heater Room
Desired
Temperature
Temperature

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 Introduction to Measurement …
 Systems can be classified broadly as open loop and closed
loop
 Closed loop system

Output
Comparison Controller Process
Desired
Output
Response

Measurement

Elements of a simple closed-loop control system.

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 Introduction to Measurement …
Figure 1.1 shows a functional block diagram of a simple
temperature control system in which the temperature Ta of a room is
maintained at a reference value Td.

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 Introduction to Measurement
1.3 Elements of a measurement system

A measuring system exists to provide information about the physical

value of some variable being measured. In simple cases, the system can
consist of only a single unit that gives an output reading or signal according
to the magnitude of the unknown variable applied to it. However, in more
complex measurement situations, a measuring system consists of several
separate elements as shown in Figure 1.2.

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 Introduction to Measurement
1.3 Elements of a measurement system …

The term measuring instrument is commonly used to describe a

measurement system, whether it contains only one or many elements, and
this term will be widely used throughout. The first element in any measuring
system is the primary sensor: this gives an output that is a function of the
measurand (the input applied to it).

Fig. 1.2 Elements of a measuring instrument. … 8

 Definition

 A dictionary definition of 'sensor' is

`a device that detects a change in a physical
stimulus and turns it into a signal which can
be measured or recorded;
 The corresponding definition of
'transducer' is 'a device that transfers energy
from one system to another in the same or in
the different form'
form .

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 Introduction to Measurement
1.3 Elements of a measurement system …
Variable Conversion Element. Variable conversion elements are needed
where the output variable of a primary transducer is in an inconvenient form and
has to be converted to a more convenient form. For instance, the displacement-
measuring strain gauge has an output in the form of a varying resistance. The
resistance change cannot be easily measured and so it is converted to a change in
voltage by a bridge circuit, which is a typical example of a variable conversion
element. In some cases, the primary sensor and variable conversion element are
combined, and the combination is known as a transducer. In some cases, the
word ‘sensor’ is used generically to refer to both transducers and transmitters.

Part of Fig. 1.2 Elements of a measuring instrument. 10

 Introduction to Measurement
1.3 Elements of a measurement system …
Signal Processing Element. Signal processing elements exist to
improve the quality of the output of a measurement system in some way. A
very common type of signal processing element is the electronic amplifier,
which amplifies the output of the primary transducer or variable conversion
element, thus improving the sensitivity and resolution of measurement. This
element of a measuring system is particularly important where the primary
transducer has a low output. For example, thermocouples have a typical
output of only a few millivolts. Other types of signal processing element are
those that filter out induced noise and remove mean levels etc. In some
devices, signal processing is incorporated into a transducer, which is then
known as a transmitter.

Part of Fig. 1.2 Elements of a measuring instrument. 11

 Introduction to Measurement
1.3 Elements of a measurement system …
In addition to these three components just mentioned, some
measurement systems have one or two other components, firstly to transmit
the signal to some remote point and secondly to display or record the signal if
it is not fed automatically into a feedback control system.
Signal transmission is needed when the observation or application point
of the output of a measurement system is some distance away from the site
of the primary transducer. Sometimes, this separation is made solely for
purposes of convenience, but more often it follows from the physical
inaccessibility or environmental unsuitability of the site of the primary
transducer for mounting the signal presentation/recording unit.

Part of Fig. 1.2 Elements of a measuring instrument. 12

 Introduction to Measurement
1.3 Elements of a measurement system …

The signal transmission element has traditionally consisted of single or

multi-cored cable, which is often screened to minimize signal corruption by
induced electrical noise.
However, fibre-optic cables are being used in ever increasing numbers in
modern installations, in part because of their low transmission loss and
imperviousness to the effects of electrical and magnetic fields.

Part of Fig. 1.2 Elements of a measuring instrument. 13

 Introduction to Measurement
1.3 Elements of a measurement system …
The final optional element in a measurement system is the point where
the measured signal is utilized. In some cases, this element is omitted
altogether because the measurement is used as part of an automatic control
scheme, and the transmitted signal is fed directly into the control system. In
other cases, this element in the measurement system takes the form either of
a signal presentation unit or of a signal-recording unit. These take many
forms according to the requirements of the particular measurement
application.

Part of Fig. 1.2 Elements of a measuring instrument. 14

 Introduction to Measurement
1.4 Choosing appropriate measuring instruments
The starting point in choosing the most suitable instrument, to use for
measurement of a particular quantity, in a manufacturing plant or other
system, is the specification of the instrument characteristics required;
especially parameters like:

 The desired measurement accuracy

 Resolution
 Sensitivity and
 Dynamic performance

we are likely to study definitions of these, in near future

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 Introduction to Measurement
1.4 Choosing appropriate measuring instruments …
It is also essential to know the environmental conditions that the
instrument will be subjected to, as some conditions will immediately either
eliminate the possibility of using certain types of instrument or else will create
a requirement for expensive protection of the instrument.
It should also be noted that protection reduces the performance of some
instruments, especially in terms of their dynamic characteristics (for example,
sheaths protecting thermocouples and resistance thermometers reduce their
speed of response).
Provision of this type of information usually requires the expert
knowledge of personnel who are intimately acquainted with the operation of
the manufacturing plant or system in question.

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 Introduction to Measurement
1.4 Choosing appropriate measuring instruments …
New techniques and instruments are being developed all the time, and
therefore a good instrumentation engineer must keep abreast of the latest
developments by reading the appropriate technical journals regularly.
The instrument characteristics form the technical basis for a comparison
between the relative merits of different instruments. Generally, the better the
characteristics, the higher the cost.
However, in comparing the cost and relative suitability of different
instruments for a particular measurement situation, considerations of
durability, maintainability and constancy of performance are also very
important because the instrument chosen will often have to be capable of
operating for long periods without performance degradation and a
requirement for costly maintenance.
In consequence of this, the initial cost of an instrument often has a low
weighting in the evaluation exercise.

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 Introduction to Measurement
1.4 Choosing appropriate measuring instruments …
Instrument choice therefore proceeds by specifying the minimum
characteristics required by a measurement situation and then searching
manufacturers’ catalogues to find an instrument whose characteristics match
those required. (trade off)
To select an instrument with characteristics superior to those required
would only mean paying more than necessary for a level of performance
greater than that needed.

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 Introduction to Measurement
1.4 Choosing appropriate measuring instruments …
As a general rule, a good assessment criterion is obtained if the total
purchase cost and estimated maintenance costs of an instrument over its life
are divided by the period of its expected life. The figure obtained is thus a
cost per year.
However, this rule becomes modified where instruments are being
installed on a process whose life is expected to be limited, perhaps in the
manufacture of a particular model of car.
Then, the total costs can only be divided by the period of time that an
instrument is expected to be used for, unless an alternative use for the
instrument is envisaged at the end of this period.

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 Introduction to Measurement
1.4 Choosing appropriate measuring instruments …
To summarize therefore, instrument choice is a compromise between:
 Performance characteristics (Accuracy and Precision)
 Simplicity
 Resolution
 Display and readout
 Ruggedness (Environment)
 Reliability
 Maintenance requirements
 Purchase cost.
 Availability
To carry out such an evaluation properly, the instrument engineer must have a wide
knowledge of the range of instruments available for measuring particular physical
quantities, and he/she must also have a deep understanding of how instrument
characteristics are affected by particular measurement situations and operating conditions.

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 Introduction to Measurement
1.4 Choosing appropriate measuring instruments …

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