Instrumentation and measurement

for
Mechanical Engineering students

CHAPTER–ONE
Introduction to measurement

Prepared by: Mulat Shitye (MSc.)

 1.1 Introduction to Measurement
 Measurement techniques have been of immense importance ever since the start of human
civilization, when measurements were first needed to regulate the transfer of goods in barter
trade to ensure that exchanges were fair.

 The industrial revolution during the nineteenth century brought about a rapid development of
new instruments and measurement techniques to satisfy the needs of industrialized production
techniques.

 The massive growth in the application of computers to industrial process control

and monitoring tasks has spawned a parallel growth in the requirement for instruments
to measure, record and control process variables.
Table 1.1 Definitions of standard units
Table 1.2 Fundamental and derived SI units
 1.2 Measurement system applications
Present-day applications of measuring instruments can be classified into three major areas.

1. The first of these is their use in regulating trade, applying instruments that measure physical quantities such
as length, volume and mass in terms of standard units.

2. The second application area of measuring instruments is in monitoring functions. These provide information
that enables human beings to take some prescribed action accordingly. The gardener uses a thermometer to
determine whether he should turn the heat on in his greenhouse or open the windows if it is too hot.
In a chemical process for instance, the progress of chemical reactions is indicated by the measurement of
temperatures and pressures at various points, and such measurements allow the operator to take correct
decisions regarding the electrical supply to heaters, cooling water flows, valve positions etc.

3. The other important use of monitoring instruments is in calibrating the instruments used in the automatic
process control systems.
Use as part of automatic feedback control systems
forms the third application area of measurement
systems. Figure 1.1 shows a functional block
diagram of a simple temperature control system in
which the temperature 𝑇𝑎 of a room is maintained
at a reference value 𝑇𝑑 . The value of the
controlled variable Ta, as determined by a
temperature-measuring device, is compared with
the reference value Td, and the difference e is
applied as an error signal to the heater. The heater
then modifies the room temperature until 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇𝑑 . Fig. 1.1 Elements of a simple closed-loop control system.
 1.3 Elements of a measurement system
• A measuring system exists to provide information about the physical value of some variable being measured.
• In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single unit that gives an output reading or signal according to the
magnitude of the unknown variable applied to it. However, in more complex measurement situations, a measuring
system consists of several separate elements as shown in Figure 1.2.

The first element in any measuring system is the primary

sensor: this gives an output that is a function of the
measurand (the input applied to it). For most but not all
sensors, this function is at least approximately linear.
Some examples of primary sensors are

 A liquid-in-glass thermometer,
 A thermocouple and
 A strain gauge.
Fig. 1.2 Elements of a measuring instrument.
Variable conversion elements are needed where the output variable of a primary transducer is in an inconvenient
form and has to be converted to a more convenient form. For instance, the displacement-measuring strain gauge has
an output in the form of a varying resistance. The resistance change cannot be easily measured and so it is converted
to a change in voltage by a bridge circuit, which is a typical example of a variable conversion element. In some cases,
the primary sensor and variable conversion element are combined, and the combination is known as a transducer.

Signal processing elements exist to improve the quality of the output of a measurement system in some way. A very
common type of signal processing element is the electronic amplifier, which amplifies the output of the primary
transducer or variable conversion element, thus improving the sensitivity and resolution of measurement. In some
devices, signal processing is incorporated into a transducer, which is then known as a transmitter.

Signal transmission is needed when the observation or application point of the output of a measurement system is
some distance away from the site of the primary transducer. Sometimes, this separation is made solely for purposes
of convenience, but more often it follows from the physical inaccessibility or environmental unsuitability of the site of
the primary transducer for mounting the signal presentation/recording unit.
………Cont’d
The signal transmission element has traditionally consisted of single or multi-cored cable, which is often screened to
minimize signal corruption by induced electrical noise. However, fibre-optic cables are being used in ever increasing
numbers in modern installations, in part because of their low transmission loss and imperviousness to the effects of
electrical and magnetic fields.

The final optional element in a measurement system is the point where the measured signal is utilized. In some cases,
this element is omitted altogether because the measurement is used as part of an automatic control scheme, and the
transmitted signal is fed directly into the control system. In other cases, this element in the measurement
system takes the form either of a signal presentation unit or of a signal-recording unit. These take many forms
according to the requirements of the particular measurement application.
 1.4 Choosing appropriate measuring instruments
 The starting point in choosing the most suitable instrument to use for measurement of a particular quantity in a
manufacturing plant or other system is the specification of the instrument characteristics required, especially
parameters like the desired measurement accuracy, resolution, sensitivity and dynamic performance.

 It is also essential to know the environmental conditions that the instrument will be subjected to, as some
conditions will immediately either eliminate the possibility of using certain types of instrument or else will create
a requirement for expensive protection of the instrument.

 It should also be noted that protection reduces the performance of some instruments, especially in terms of their
dynamic characteristics (for example, sheaths protecting thermocouples and resistance thermometers reduce their
speed of response).

 As far as possible, measurement systems and instruments should be chosen that are as insensitive as possible to
the operating environment, although this requirement is often difficult to meet because of cost and other
performance considerations.
………Cont’d
 Cost is very strongly correlated with the performance of an instrument, as measured by its static characteristics.
Increasing the accuracy or resolution of an instrument, for example, can only be done at a penalty of increasing
its manufacturing cost.
 Instrument choice therefore proceeds by specifying the minimum characteristics required by a measurement
situation and then searching manufacturers’ catalogues to find an instrument whose characteristics match those
required. To select an instrument with characteristics superior to those required would only mean paying more
than necessary for a level of performance greater than that needed.

 Durability is an important consideration in the choice of instruments. The projected life of instruments often
depends on the conditions in which the instrument will have to operate. Maintenance requirements must also be
taken into account, as they also have cost implications.
………Cont’d
To summarize therefore, instrument choice is a compromise between

 Performance characteristics
 Ruggedness
 Durability
 Maintenance requirements
 Purchase cost.

To carry out such an evaluation properly, the instrument engineer must have a wide knowledge of the range of
instruments available for measuring particular physical quantities, and he/she must also have a deep understanding
of how instrument characteristics are affected by particular measurement situations and operating conditions.