Anatomy, physiology of

the endocrine system

Geofrey S. Sevilleno
Iloilo Doctors’ College
College of Nursing
The Endocrine System
Endocrine glands
 Composed of
This system is made up
secretory cells
of widely distributed
arranged in clusters
organs whose known as ACINI
secretions (called  No ducts
HORMONES) are
poured into the blood to
 Rich blood supply
reach the target cells Negative feedback
 Mechanism for
regulating hormone
concentration in the
bloodstream
The hormonal regulation

We call it the Hypothalamic-

pituitary-endocrine axis
The exception are the
pancreas and the parathyroid
gland
Hormones

These are chemical substances released by the

glands into the blood
Each hormone will go to the target organ and binds
its receptor
classifications:
1. Peptides or protein hormones (insulin)
2. Lipid or steroid hormones (hydrocortisone)
3. amines (epinephrine)
4. fatty acids derivatives (retinoids)
 The endocrine glands
 The pituitary- anterior and posterior
 The pineal gland
 The thyroid gland
 The parathyroid gland
 The adrenal gland
 The pancreas
 The gonads- testes and ovary
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Endocrine Linkages
Hypothalamus
Controls the release of pituitary
hormones
Hormones
 Corticotropin RH
 Thyrotropin RH

 Growth Hormone RH

 Gonadotropin RH

 Somatostatin
 Inhibits Growth Hormone (GH) & Thyroid
Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Pituitary gland

Hypophysis
A round structure about 1.27cm
@inferior aspect of the brain
MASTER GLAND
Controlled by Hypothalamus
2 divisions
 Anterior PG
 Posterior PG
Anterior Pituitary Gland
Also called
Adenohypophysis
Other hormones
Hormones produced
 Melanocyte
Stimulating
 Growth hormone (GH)
Hormone (MSH)
 Thyroid Stimulating
Hormone (TSH)
 Adrenocorticotropic
Hormone (ACTH)
 Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH)
 Luteinizing Hormone
(LH)
 Prolactin
APG

GH GH
 Increases protein  Essential for normal
synthesis in many growth (bone &
tissues muscle)
 Increases the  Stress, Exercise &
breakdown of fatty Hypoglycemia
acids in adipose increases secretion
tissue of this hormone
 Increases glucose
level in the blood
 APG
ACTH LH
 Stimulates synthesis &  Female
secretion of Adrenal  Development of Corpus
hormones Luteum
 Release oocyte
TSH
 Production of Estrogen &
 Stimulates synthesis & Progesterone
secretion of thyroid  Male
hormones  Secretion of testosterone
FSH  Development of interstitial
 Female tissue of testes
 Stimulates growth of Prolactin
ovarian follicle
 Prepares female breast for
 Ovulation
breast feeding
 Male
 Sperm production
 APG
Melanocytes
 Specialized cells of
MSH skin
 Development of skin
 Produce Melanin
pigmentation  Helps protect cells
from skin cancer
 Also suppresses
appetite
 Helps also regulate
the hormone
Aldosterone
 Increases when you
exposed to UV light
 The pituitary gland:
posterior lobe
Also called the neurohypophysis
This lobe does not secrete hormones
but only stores hormones
 Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
 Oxytocin
Posterior Pituitary Gland
ADH
 Also known as Vasopressin
 Increases water reabsorption by kidney

 Stimulated by an increase in the osmolality

of the blood or low BP
Oxytocin
 Facilitates milk ejection during lactation
 Increases uterine contractions during labor
& delivery
The pineal gland
Also called
epiphysis cerebri
Located deeply in
the center of the
brain
Secretes melatonin
 Controls the
circadian rhythms
 Triggered by
Darkness &
Inhibited by Light
The thyroid gland
Butterfly-shaped organ
Lower part of the anterior neck
With two lobes connected by the isthmus
5cm long 3cm wide
Weighs 30g
Blood flow is very high about 5ml/minute per gram
of thyroid tissue
 Reflects high metabolic activity of the thyroid gland
Thyroid hormones

Iodide
 Ingested in the diet then absorbed into the
blood in GIT then taken up by the TG to
form thyroid hormones
Iodine
 Needed for thyroid hormone synthesis
 The thyroid gland
Secretes 3 T3 & T4
hormones  Control cellular metabolic activity
 Tri-iodothyronine
(T3)
 Cell replication & brain
 Contains 3
development
iodine atoms in  Necessary for Normal growth
each molecule
 Controlled by TSH through
 Thyroxine (T4)
negative feedback mechanisms
 Contains 4
iodine atoms in Euthyroid
each molecule
 Calcitonin
 Thyroid hormone production that
is within normal limits
 Thyroid hormones
T3
T4  5 x as potent as T4
 Weak hormone  More rapid metabolic
 Maintains body actions
metabolism in a  Accelerates metabolic
steady state processes by increasing
the level of enzymes for
oxygen consumption
 Calcitonin

Or thyrocalcitonin
Secreted in response to high plasma levels of
Calcium by increasing excretion in the kidneys
It reduces the plasma level of calcium by increasing
its deposition in bone
Decreases bone resorption
 The parathyroid glands
 Functions of the hormone:
 Increases bone breakdown by
2 pairs (4) of
yellowish glands osteoclasts
closely related to the  Increases Vitamin D synthesis
posterior surface of  Increases Calcium level in the blood
the thyroid gland  Causes retention of calcium in the
Secretes parathyroid kidney
hormone (PTH)  Lowers the phosphorus level
Regulates Calcium  Increased serum calcium results in
& Phosphorus decreased PTH secretion creating
metabolism negative feedback mechanism
 The Adrenal glands
 a pair of gland resting on top of each kidney
with 2 layers
 ADRENAL CORTEX
 Secretes Glucocorticoids
 Secretes Mineralocorticoids

 Secretes Androgens- sex hormones

 ADRENAL MEDULLA
 Secretes the cathecolamines
 Epinephrine
 Norepinephrine
 Adrenal Glands
Inner portion
 Adrenal Medulla
 Secretes Catecholamines
Outer portion
 Adrenal Cortex
 Secretes Steroid hormones
Regulated by Hypothalamic-Pituitary-
Adrenal Axis
Fig. 10.17
Fig. 10.18
 Adrenal Medulla
Functions part of the ANS
Lined with Sympathetic nerve fibers when stimulated
causes the release of Catecholamines
90% Epinephrine
 Thus called Adrenaline
 Release to prepare to meet a challenge (Fight-or-Flight
response)
 Causes decreased blood flow to tissues that are not needed
in emergency situations (GIT)
 Increased blood flow to tissues that are important for
effective Fight or Flight response (cardiac & skeletal muscle)
 Releases Free Fatty Acids
 Increase BMR & Blood Glucose level
The Adrenal Cortex
Glucocorticoids- cortisol
 Glucose metabolism
 Hydrocortisone results in elevation of blood glucose levels
 Inhibit inflammation and immune response
Mineralocorticoids
 Aldosterone
 Increases sodium retention (renal tubules), water
retention secondarily
 Causes excretion of potassium
 also secreted in response to the presence of Angiotensin
II in the bloodstream
 The Adrenal Cortex
Adrenal Sex Hormones (Androgens)
 3rd major type of steroid hormones
 Secretes a little of Estrogens & progestins
 Insignificant in males
 Increase female sexual drives, pubic hair and axillary hair
growth
 In excess, resulted to Masculinization
The pancreas

The endocrine portion of the pancreas is the

ISLETS of LANGERHANS
 This islet is composed of three types of cells
 Alpha
 Beta

 Delta
The pancreas: islets of Langerhans

The Alpha cells

 secrete GLUCAGON
The Beta cells
 secrete INSULIN
The delta cells
 secrete SOMATOSTATIN
 Pancreatic insulin
Causes Hypoglycemia by two mechanisms:
 Glucose breakdown- glycolysis
 Glycogen production- glycogenesis
 Pancreatic insulin
Needed by most body cells to allow Glucose to
enter the cell membrane
 The brain cells, intestinal cells, the red blood cells
The islet cells do not need insulin for glucose
entry
Pancreatic glucagon
Causes increased level of Glucose by:
 Glycogen breakdown- glycogenolysis
 Glucose production- glucogenesis
The Gonads : Male- Testes
The testes houses the Interstitial cells of
Leydig which secrete ANDROGENS
 Testosterone
 Dehydrotestosterone
 Androsterone
The Androgens

Aid in spermatogenesis
Maintain functional reproductive organs
Responsible for secondary sex
characteristics
Responsible for male sexual drives
The Gonads: Female- Ovary
The Follicular cells of the ovarian follicle secrete
ESTROGEN
The corpus luteum secretes PROGESTERONE
 The estrogen
Aids in uterine and mammary gland development
Maintains the structure of the external genitalia
Produces the secondary sexual characteristics in
female
Maintains normal menstrual cycle
The progesterone

Together with estrogen, maintains normal

menstruation
Increases body temperature
Decreases muscle tone and peristalsis
Maintains pregnancy
Diagnostic findings /
laboratory
examinations
 Pituitary test
 Growth hormone
 used to evaluate GH excess or deficiency
 Normal value:
 men (<5ng/mL)
 women (<10ng/mL
 Water deprivation test
 Inability to increase urine spec gravity means DI
 T3 & T4
 Blood test for diagnosis of thyroid disorders
 Normal Value
 T3: 80-230 ng/dL
 T4: 5-12 ng/dL
 Both values increase in hyperthyroidism
 Decreased in hypothyroidism

 THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH)

 most sensitive blood test used to differentiate the diagnosis of
Primary hypothyroidism from secondary hypothyroidism.
 Normal value is 0.2 to 5.4 uU/ml
 Elevated in primary hypothyroidism
 Decreased in hyperthyroidism or secondary hypothyroidism
 Parathyroid: serum Calcium & serum
Phosphate
 Test evaluates parathyroid function
 Normal Ca level: 8.8-10.2mg/dL
 Normal Phosphate: 3-4.5mg/dL
 Adrenal
 Cortisol levels: evaluates adrenal cortex
function
 increased CS
 decreased level AD

 Aldosterone levels
 to diagnose hyperaldosteronism
 GLYCOSYLATED HEMOGLOBIN
Glycosylated hemoglobin is blood glucose bound to
hemoglobin

test used to measures glucose control during the previous 3

months
Not used to diagnose DM
Hyperglycemia in clients with DM causes increase in
glycosylated hemoglobin
Fasting is not needed
Values:
Diabetics with good control: 7.5% or less
Diabetics with fair control: 7.6% to 8.9%
Diabetics with poor control: 9% or greater
 FASTING BLOOD GLUCOSE

Aids in the diagnosis of Diabetes

Pre-test; NPO for 8 hours
Normal FBS- 80-120 mg/dL
Two hour oral glucose test
(OGTT)
Determines the level of glucose 2 hours
after drinking 75g of glucose. Glucose
level should return to premeal levels, but
in DM the level is >200mg/dL
Normal: <140mg/dL
Client must drink entire 75g of glucose
and not eat anything else until blood is
drawn.
 Urine glucose should be negative
Urine ketones: measures ketones excreted in
urine from incomplete fat metabolism; should
be negative;
> Positive result means lack of insulin or DKA