Physical Geology

Introduction:
We see that after a few years of exposure to sun, wind, rain etc. garden
chairs etc., become rotten; nails rust and fall, into pieces; stones change
their colour and bricks lose their appearance. Such deteriorating actions
of the weather are known as “weather_ affected" or more correctly,
"weather_ beaten". To minimize such actions, we provide paints to steel
structures, stone and wood work; and apply cement plaster brick
masonry.
Similarly, the earth's crust is exposed everywhere to direct and indirect
attacks of rain, wind, running water, glaciers, etc. (called physical agents)
which tirelessly attack
the exposed surface of the earth and go on modifying it constantly. The study
of such constructive and destructive
processes of physical agents is called PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

Department of
Civil Engineering,
University of
Engineering and Technology
 Rock weathering:

Following are the two types of weathering,

depending upon the nature of the physical
agents involved in its process:­
1. Physical (Mechanical) weathering.
2. Chemical weathering.
 Physical Geology
Technical terms:
Before entering into the details of the work done by the physical
agents, a few technical terms which are of common usage, should be
clearly understood at this stage.
(i)disintegration:
It may be defined as the process of breaking up of rocks into small
pieces by the mechanical actions of the physical agents.
(ii) Decomposition:
It may be defined as the process of breaking up of mineral
constituents, to form new compounds, by the chemical actions of the
physical agents.
(iii)denudation:
Denudation (Latin, denudo=to wear away) is a general term, used
when the surface of the earth is worn away by chemical as well as
mechanical actions of physical agents and the lower, layers are
exposed. This happens when the rocks are exposed for, a sufficient
length of time to the attacks of physical agents.
 Rock weathering:
Rock weathering:
In a broad sense, the term "weathering" means the process of
Physical breaking up (i.e. disintegration ) and chemical. rotting up
(i.e. decomposition) of rocks occurring simultaneously. As a result
the rocks at or near the surface of earth, are broken into .large and
small fragments which tend to become finer and finer with the
passage of time. When the topmost material of the earth surface is
mixed into the decayed vegetation and other organic matter, it.
forms the soil, which is very essential for our existence on the earth.
The process ,of weathering depends upon the following two factors:-
1. Nature of rocks
2.Length of time.
Some rocks are very soft and can be easily and more effectively
attacked by the physical agents, whereas harder one's are not
attacked to the same extent, under the same set off conditions. It is
also seen that more the time given to the rocks for weathering, more
will be the extent of weathering and the depths to which it has taken
place.
 Physical & Chemical weathering
1.Physical weathering:­
Disintegration or physical breaking up of the rocks, is called physical
weathering. It is essentially independent of its chemical. change. The
main agents involved are wind, running water and glaciers. It is most
active in cold, dry and higher areas of the earth's surface.
2.Chemical weathering:
The chemical decomposition of the rocks is called chemical,
weathering, which is nothing but chemical reaction between gases of
the atmosphere and minerals of the rocks. It is most active in warm,
wet and low lying areas of earth's surface. It has been observed, that
water plays an important role in chemical weathering, as water can
dissolve many active gases from the atmosphere such as carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen etc. These gases, when dissolved in water,
can attack the surface more effectively. For example, in Brazil solid
granite (one of the hardest rocks) has been so softened by chemical
weathering that it can be dug very easily even with hand spades up to
a depth of 15 meters.
 Physical Geology
Engineering importance of weathering:
An engineer is always directly or indirectly interested in rock
weathering, especially when he has to select a suitable
quarry for the extraction of stones for structural and
decorative purposes. Strictly speaking the results of rock
weathering, or its probabilities at a later stage, is one of the
most important points to be considered before giving a final
decision regarding the selection of a quarry for the
extraction of stones to be ,used in any major construction
work. The extent of weathering, or: its probabilities at a
later static, is also an important factor during the selection
of site for important projects such as dam or a tunnel, as the
process of weathering always causes a loss in the strength
of the rocks or soil.
GEOLOGICAL WORK :
In a broad sense, geological work means the
process of disintegration of rocks by the action of
physical agents, followed by transportation of the
rock material to considerable distances where it is
deposited sooner or later depending upon the
circumstances. Thus the geological work can be
sub-divided into the following three stages:­
1. Erosion.
2. Transport.
3. Deposition.
Geological work of a few physical agents, which
are from the subject point of view, are described
below:
 GEOLOGICAL WORK :
Geological work of wind:
The air in motion is called wind. It
is the only physical agent which can carry
rock particles, even against the normal
force of gravity, to long distances. Like
other agents, the work's of wind can also
be divided into the following three
heads:­

1.Erosion.
2. Transport.
3.Deposition
 Geological work of wind:
1.Erosion­:
It means the removal of loose rock
particles by the wind, as it blows over
and produces many changes on the
surface of rocks. The work of erosion, by
wind, takes place by the following two
processes:­
(a) Deflation, and
(b) Abrasion.
Geological work of wind:

Deflation
The blowing wind, readily lifts up the loose,,
dry and;. incoherent rock particles. As a result
of such removal of particles, only hard and
compact rock masses remain in their original
position, which are exposed for further
erosion. Such a process in which the loose
rock particles are removed by the impacts of
blowing wind, is known as "deflation".
 Geological work of wind:
• Abrasion:
• The rock particles lifted up by the blowing wind are carried
by it. These particles have a tendency to jump upon and collide with
any rock mass lying in their path of travel. Sometimes the wind
loaded with such particles attains, considerable erosive power
which helps in eroding the rock surfaces by rubbing and grinding
actions and produce many ,changes. This type of wind erosion is
known as abrasion. As a result of abrasion, the lower portion of an
obstruction, in the direction of wind, are eroded more quickly than
the higher parts as shown in FIGURE-1, page 42(A). The rocks which
are undercut, by the abrasion of wind are known as pedestal rock 5.
It may be noted that the intensity of wind erosion depends upon
the following factors:­
• 1. Nature of the region over which the wind blows.
• 2. Velocity of the wind.
Geological work of wind:
It has been observed that the geological work of the wind is seen
to be more effective in desert or semi-desert regions, because in
a non-desert area there is enough water available to support
more or less a continuous cover of vegetation and to keep it
damp. Thus the rock particles are bound together due to
cohesive power. Whereas, on the other hand, desert sand
particles consist of a diameter varying between 0.02 to 0.8
millimeter. it has been experimentally found that rock particles
of this grade do not posses any cohesive power, when dry. When
the wind is blowing with a low velocity, it does not possess
sufficient, erosive power as the erosive power is directly
proportional to the velocity. But when the wind is blowing with a
high velocity, it can remove dry and loose rock material. As a
result of the wind erosion rocks are polished and smoothened.
Sometimes, a violent storm of rotary motion is formed due to
unequal wind pressures called tornado .
 Geological work of wind:
This storm, which is generally of a funnel shaped
cloud, arrives without warning signs, hits a very small
area and vanishes before the people realise it. A
tornado can occur anywhere on a tropical region and
affects a very limited area, not exceeding 20 square
kilometers. The action of tornado is to ,• lift the
articles, rotate in a free vortex, manner, and carry
them as high as 50 meters above the ground level.
After 2-3 minutes when the force in the storm
reduces, the articles fall down on the ground. A
tornado of very light intensity disturbs the traffic
momentarily, but if of moderate intensity, it picks up
the loose and light articles, rotates them in the
effective area and then throws on the ground. It is
very harmful for the aviation activities. The scientists
have not been able to develop any instrument which
can predict a tornado.
2.Transport:
Sometimes we see clouds of dust, which are blown even in city
streets in dry season (mostly in the summer season). These
clouds are nothing but dust particles which are carried by the
wind from one place to another. The intensity of such dust
clouds depends upon the force of the wind as a transporting
agent, which further depends upon the velocity of the wind
with which it blows, and also on the size and nature of the
particles. It has
been observed that the finer (less than 0.06 mm. dia) and
lighter rock particles are lifted up in the air and are carried in
suspension while the coarser and heavier particles are, rolled
along the surface of the earth in the direction of the wind. It
has been established that the red rain of February 1903, which
fell at certain places in Great Britain seemed to have obtained
this colour from dust particles which here brought by the
winds' from Africa. It has also been proved by some geologists
that the finest dust particles from Krakatoa (an island between
Java and Sumatra) eruption was carried by the wind several
times round the earth before they settled.
3.Deposition:
When the transporting power of the wind ceases to act, the
rock particles, which are carried by wind, are deposited either
on the land or into the sea depending upon the
circumstances. It has been observed that when the particles
are deposited on the land, they tend to form a series of layers
like ripples on the seashore. These layers may be major or
minor. Major waves are called dunes which can be seen in
the desert areas. It has been observed that about 1/6th of
the total land area of the world is desert and the greatest
deserts of the world lie in the subtropical belts where
atmospheric pressure is high and the winds are generally dry.
Wind deposits are called Aeolian (Greek, Aeolus=The God of
winds) deposits. Though there are many types of Aeolian
deposits, yet the following are important from the subject
point of view:­
(I)Dunes-
Sometimes dunes are also called sand dunes, because these are the
deposits of coarse particles of sand. When some. obstruction comes
in the way of the wind, carrying sand particles, it reduces the
velocity of the wind due to friction. This results in separating out the
sand particles from the wind, which fall down due to the
gravitational pull of the earth. Thus the sand goes on accumulating
near the obstruction and ultimately forms a dune. A dune has a
definite summit and slope. A typical dune is a crescent (new
moonlike) shaped as shown in FIGURE page 42(A). If we see it in plan
we find that it has a gentle slope (called windward slope) on one side
and a steep slope (called leeward slope) on the other side. The dunes
may be moving or non-moving, depending upon the topography of
the region. The movement of the dune takes place from the
windward side towards the leeward side. The action of the blowing
wind erodes the sand particles and gradually takes them up to the
crest and finally these particles are dropped down on the leeward
side. In this fashion, a dune slowly moves in the direction of the
wind. Generally this movement is few meters in one year. but
sometimes dunes travel considerable distances and bury houses
forests and agricultural lands.
NOTE: FOR
ILLUSTRATIONS OF
(ii)Loess
Loess is a deposit of very fine dust particles which
are carried by the wind. It may be noted that fine
dust particles are carried even by slight winds, and
are not deposited easily. Such dust particles are
generally washed down by rain from the air and.
retained by the vegetation on the earth surface.
Thus loess is a deposit of fine dust particles away
from desert regions, where water and vegetation is
in abundance. This term has originated from China
where such deposits are in abundance. Loess
deposits have been tried for the manufacture of
bricks in the Western countries, but the product is
not so satisfactory.
Engineering considerations:­
In general, no site is selected for any type of
important work on the moving dunes,
because such dunes are always a source of
trouble to an engineer. It has been
experienced that: sometimes the moving
dunes damage certain important works, if
left uncontrolled. But if an engineer is
compelled by the environments to select
such a site, special methods should be
adopted to check the motion of the moving
dunes, e.g. either to construct wind breaks
or growing vegetation on the surrounding
areas.
Geological work of running water:

AFTER THE BREAK

AFTER THE BREAK

BREAK FOR ONLY 20

MINUTES
RESUMING LECTURE
 Physical Geology
Geological work of running water:
Rain falling on the dry ground first moistens the soil before any
water may be evaporated or absorbed into the earth. Once the
overlying soil takes its share from the rain water, the, excessive
water runs off superficially i.e. starts flowing on the surface of
the earth. This water goes on increasing, in volume, till it
gathers some strength and enough volume to form a rill (very
small stream). This rill after joining with other rills forms a small
stream, and ultimately the union of such small and large
streams forms a river.
The geological work done by the running water or river is very
important. Moreover, it is considered to be the most. powerful
agent, especially in times of flood. Like other agents, the work
of running water can also be placed under the following three
heads:­
1. Erosion.
2. Transport.
3. Deposition.
1.Erosion:
It means the removal of rock particles
by running water, as it flows over and
produces many changes on the
surface rocks. Streams are the most powerful
agents of erosion. The work of erosion, by running
water, takes place by the following three
processes:­
(a) Hydraulic action,
(b)Abrasion, and
(c)Corrosion.
 1.Erosion:
Hydraulic action:
The running water goes on impacting (i.e. dashing) against
the exposed rocks on the sides and bottom of the channel. In this
continuous impact, the rocks first become loose, and then the
water enters in the rocks through the planes of weakness.
Whenever this water exerts a good amount of pressure, the rocks
disintegrate, which are carried away by the running water. This
type of erosion, which takes place by the impacts of running
water, in known as erosion by "hydraulic action".
Abrasion:
The running water has a tendency to drag loose rock particles and
fragments because of its kinetic energy. Sometimes the running
water, loaded with rock particles, attains considerable erosive
power , which helps in eroding. the rock surfaces by rubbing and
grinding actions even on the hardest possible rocks in the way of
the water. This type of erosion bv the running water is known as
"abrasion". These particles also collide and strike against each
other, many times, during their transport. These mutual collisions
lead to their further break down.
 1.Erosion:
• Corrosion:
Sometimes the running water contains
some gases (like /-Carbon dioxide) and
other salts. These dissolved gases and
salts have some slow but steady chemical
action on the rocks with which the water
comes in contact. It has been observed
that whenever the water containing
carbon dioxide comes in contact with
limestone it gets dissolved into the water
easily. After a sufficient length of time,
limestone may wholly or partially
disappear in solution. This type of erosion
is known as "corrosion".
1. EROSION (Cont’d)

• The first two processes of erosion by running water

are termed as mechanical processes and the third one as a
chemical process. The former (i.e. mechanical) is more
important off the two. It may be noted that both these
processes may be occurring independently or
simultaneously. The intensity of erosion by the running
water depends upon the following three factors:-
1.The Velocity of the water.
2.Nature of the soil, over which the water runs.
3.Load conditions of the running water.
 1. EROSION (Cont’d)

• It is evident, that if the water running with more velocity

there will be more erosion, as the water will exert more pressure.
Moreover, its impact on rocks, with which it comes into contact, will
be stronger.
• Secondly, if the channels are made of soft rocks: like clay ,there, will
be more erosion, but if the channels are made of, harder rocks, there
will be less erosion, under the same set of conditions.
• Thirdly, the load already carried by the water is also an important
factor of erosion. It has been experienced that if the water is almost
pure it cannot erode the material so effectively. But if it contains
small sized particles, pebbles or other fragments (known as tools of
erosion) it can erode the rocks more effectively. It has also been
experienced that if the water already contains sufficient load i.e. it is
incapable of taking any more load, there will not be much of erosion
as compared with the overloaded and underloaded water.
• As a result of erosion by the running water, V-shape valleys and
potholes are formed which increase in size with the passage of time.
2.

Transport:
All the material which is eroded and carried by the water is called its
load, which is carried under the force of gravity in either of the following
two ways:­
1. Suspension and rolling.
2. Solution.
The first type of load is called mechanical load and the second one is
called a chemical load. It has been observed that lighter and finer
particles are lifted up by the water from the bed and are carried in
suspension to the farthest points by the hydraulic action of the stream.
The coarser and heavier particles are rolled and pushed along the bed of
streams, but their movement is much slower than that of the suspended
particles. This establishes the fact as to why the beds of streams are
generally stony near their heads and sandy near their tails. We know
that many rocks and minerals are soluble in water like limestone. When
running water comes in contact with such rocks these are carried away
in solution. This type of work is not of much importance except in
limestone areas.
3.
3.Deposition:­

The rock particles which are carried in suspension by the running

water are separated out as soon as the velocity of the water is
decreased. The rock particles may be deposited in any shape and size
depending upon the circumstances.
Relation between velocity of stream, erosion and transport:­
We know that the velocity of a stream increases with the increase in
gradient as well as discharge .It has been found experimentally that
if the velocity of a stream be doubled, its erosive power is increased
4 times or even more: and its capacity to carry load is increased as
much as 32 times; and its competence (i.e.' volume of the largest
rock fragment that it can move by pushing or rolling) is increased up
to 64 times. It has also been observed that if the gradient of the bed
is increased 4 times, the velocity is about doubled. The geological
work of the running water results in the formation of the following:­
Potholes:Waterfalls:Meanders:Ox-Bow Lake:Deltas:
3.
Potholes:
Potholes are circular holes in the beds of
streams or rivers, which are drilled down by
stones or boulders in rotary motion imparted
by eddies in the water.
The boulders act as boring tools and get
themselves rounded up in the process.
Sometimes, these boulders which are worn
out gradually, are replaced by new ones and
the potholes continue to grow in size.
Potholes may vary from several, centimeters
to a few meters in diameter as well as in
depth.
3.
Waterfalls:
When a stream flows over rocks of different hardnesses, softer layer
is rapidly eroded away than a harder one. As a result of this unequal
erosion, gradient of the river is increased, which ultimately increases
the velocity of water. It happens in a place where a softer rock is
below a harder one, then the softer material is undercut by the
eddies of the falling water as shown in FIGURE-3, page 42(A). The
gradual development of this process forms a waterfall. The height,
from which the water falls, is called drop or depth of waterfall which
goes on increasing gradually. In the famous Niagara falls of U.S.A.,
the water falls from a height of 50 meters. These days power is being
generated from waterfalls, by setting hydro-electric power
generating plants in certain countries.
NOTE: FOR
ILLUSTRATIONS OF
3.
Meanders:
When a stream does not flow in a straight line, but follows a zig-zag
path, it is said to meander. The process of development of the zig-zag
route is called meandering and the curvature of the route is called
meanders.
The meanders are developed when the velocity of a stream is such
that it can perform the work of erosion and deposition, side by side.
The zig-zag path of a stream helps in the development of meanders.
Water goes on impacting on the concave side of the curve and causes
erosion. But the velocity of the: water as mentioned, is not sufficient
to carry away the eroded' material which is deposited on the convex
side of the curve ash'• shown in FIGURE-4, page 42(A). Figure(l)
shows the plan of a stream before the development of meander, (2)
shows the process, of meandering and (3) shows the plan after
meandering.
3.
Ox-Bow Lake:
Sometimes, the meandering streams detach loop and
change their path along the shortest route. Such
detached loops are,called Ox-Bow lakes as shown in
FIGURE-5, page 42(A). An Ox-Bow lake is generally
formed when the neck of a meander is reduced, very
much.., and during floods, the stream shortens its
course by cutting directly across the neck of the
meander. Figure (1) shows the plan of a meandering
stream, (2) shows more meanders, (3) shows the
formation of neck and (4) shows the new course of the
stream after cutting across the neck and forming Ox-
Bow lake.
• Deltas:
Delta is characterized by a triangular shape resembling. the
Greek letter/\.Deltas vary extremely in size,shape
composition. It is formed when a stream or river enters a
body of standing water such as a lake or a sea where the
velocity of the stream or river is checked and reduced to a
great extent. As already mentioned the reduction in velocity
results in separating out the rock particles which are carried
in suspension by the water. These separated out particles
are deposited near the shore line. This deposition near the
shore line partially chokes or blocks the mouth of the stream
and divides it into two main branches or distributaries.
Similarly, when these distributaries,, are also partially
blocked, these are further sub-divided into branches and
each branch will begin to form a new bank of its own.
Principally, every river cannot form a delta
higher than its own water level. But during
floods, the material deposited may raise the
delta higher than the water level and
vegetation may grow on its flooded plains at
higher elevations.
3.
Engineering consideration:
Generally any site for an engineering project is
selected away from the path of a river or running water.
But in the case of dams and bridges, where the site has
to be within the path of the running water, suitable
measures are adopted to stop or minimize the adverse
effects of the running water. In such cases, foundations
of the dam or pilers of the bridges are made to rest on
some firm strata and suitable measures are also adopted
to strengthen the sides and the bed of the river by stone
pitching, both upstream and downstream of the bridge
or dam to stop erosion.
3.
As already mentioned, the running water is the most
powerful agent of erosion. Thus a detailed study of the
soil and velocity of the running water constitutes an
essential data to provide adequate safeguards in the
design for the smooth and successful working off the
project.
Sometimes, an engineer has to deal with improvement
and regulation of navigable river. The general trouble in
such cases arises when the rocks met with are soft in
nature. Suitable steps, like stone-pitching in the bed and
growing vegetation on the side slopes, are taken to
guard against the scouring action of the water during
floods.
NOTE: FOR
ILLUSTRATIONS OF
3.
Glaciers:
The glaciers may be defined as the slow moving masses of ice,
away from their place of accumulation. These are formed by the
accumulation of snow on very high altitudes. Glaciers vary in size from
a fraction of square kilometer to thousands of square kilometers on
very high mountain ranges, where climate is very cold and takes active
part in shaping the mountainous regions. The glaciers are not of great
importance to an engineer though they are of scientific and economic
interest; as sometimes; glacier deposits contain many minerals of
economic interest. But the work done by several glaciers in the past
and their resulting deposits, have been of considerable importance for
engineers, as the glacier deposits have been creating a number of
problems during the construction of their projects such dams, tunnels
etc.
3.
Formation of Glaciers:
At very high altitudes, where temperature generally
remains below freezing point, snowfields (not yet compressed into ice)
are formed by annual snowfall. Such snowfields are called Neve
(French, Neva=A mass of intermediate character between snow and
compacted ice). The lower layers of the snow are then converted into
ice after freezing and compressing. The temperature of such
compressed ice is always less than 0 °C. In summer season, the upper
layers of the snow melt into water. This water percolates through the
snow, comes in contact with ice and again freezes.
If there had been no means for the snowfall to escape, the thickness of
the snow would have increased indefinitely: But this snow escapes in
either of the following two manners:­
1. If the slope of the region is sufficiently steep the snow slides down as a
mass due to its own weight i.e by gravity action. This is known as an
avalanche.
2. If the slope is not sufficiently steep, this snow does not slide down as a
mass but a part of it moves, this movement of the snow is called
glaciation and the moving ice is called glacier.
3.
Geological work of glaciers:
Like other agents, the work of glaciers, also be
placed under the following three heads:­
1.Erosion.
2.Transport.
3.Deposition.
1.Erosion
The work of erosion, by glaciers, is done in the
following two ways:­
(a) plucking and
(b)abrasion.
3.
Plucking:
During the formation of a glacier, the ice makes its
way, into the cracks, points and other fractures in the rocks
below it. As a result of this, the glacier holds a firm grip over
the portion of the rock surrounded by the ice.
As the moving ice exerts sufficient pressure over the block,
under grip, the block is plucked off; torn out of its original
position and is carried away by the moving ice leaving
behind a rough surface. The work of erosion is also done by
plucking certain projected portions of the rocks which are
held firmly by the surrounding ice.
3.
Abrasion:
The work of erosion by a glacier is also done by scratching or
grooving the surface with boulders and stones, frozen body of the
glacier which are carried along with it. These fragments act as tools
of abrasion against the rock surface. The bigger fragments perform
the work of grooving; whereas the smaller one perform the work of
scratching of the rocks over which the glaciers move.
The intensity of erosion depends upon the following two factors:­
1. Nature of the rocks over which the glacier moves.
2. Velocity of the glacier.
It has been observed that if the rocks over which the glacier, moves
are soft or unconsolidated, there will be more erosion as compared
to the harder and tougher ones. It is also evident that if the glacier
moves with a sufficient velocity, it exerts more pressure on the bed
rocks resulting in more erosion. As a result of more erosion, all the
glaciated hills are rounded off and all, the glaciated valleys are
eroded to U-shape.
2. Transport:­
The material, which is carried by a glacier, is
transported entirely in an embedded state in its body. It
has been observed that the material carried by a glacier
is not homogeneous in nature. The size of such material
ranges from the finest clay to boulders weighing many
tons.
It has also been observed that a glacier moves from a
few centimeters to a meter or so in a day depending
upon the slope, amount of friction offered by the rocks
and the temperature of the glacier itself. It may be
noted that this movement is not uniform in all parts of
the same glacier. It is more in the middle than in the
sides and the bottom, where such a movement, is
retarded by the friction offered by the rocks traversed.
3.
Deposition:
During the development and movement of a glacier, it acquires a
good amount of rock material such as pebbles, boulders etc. known
as the load of the glacier. This load moves in an embedded state in
the body of the glacier. After some distance, a stage comes, in the
path of the glacier where its load is separated out either due to over
loading or due to sudden disturbance or when the glacier melts itself.
It has been observed that when the glacier melts, a stream of muddy
water is formed, which after depositing its excessive load gives birth
to a normal stream. The sediment carried and deposited by a glacier
is more or less heterogeneous in composition and the deposit is
called boulder clay. Following two types of glacial deposits- are
important from the subject point of view:­
1. Glacial drift or till.
2. Fluvio-glacial deposit.
3.
Glacial dirft or till :
We know that in the life of a glacier, a
stage comes where the material carried by it
is separated out. If such a separation takes
place because of over loading or sudden
disturbance of the glacier, then the deposit is
heterogeneous in nature and in an
homogenous form. Such a deposit, which
takes place directly from the ice, is called
“glacial drift or till". The following two glacial
drifts are important from the subject point of
view:
(a) Moraines.
(b) Drumlins.
3.
(a)Moraines:_
Broadly speaking the term moraine (Italian, Mora=A
heap of stones) may be defined as the deposit of
glacier, which may Or may not contain fine particles like
clay and dust. It is glacial drift deposited by the ice, near
the end of its movement. A number of glacial moraines
are distinguished on the basis of their position on the
path of the glacier. Following moraines are commonly
seen on the paths of a glacier.
Lateral moraine:
It is an unstratified glacial deposit, of heterogeneous,
nature, along the sides of the path of a glacier as shown
in FIGURE-6, page 42(A).
3.
Medial moraine:
It is an unstratified glacial deposit of heterogeneous
nature, in the middle of the path of a glacier. This
happens when, two or more glaciers emerge, their
adjacent lateral moraines join together to form a ridge-
like deposit, down the valley, to some extent beyond
the point of emergence, off the two glaciers as shown in
FIGURE-6 page 42(A).
End moraine:
It is an unstratified glacial deposit of heterogeneous
nature at the lower end of a glacier beyond which the
glacier melts and gives birth to a stream as shown in
FIGUURE-6, page, 42(A). It is also called terminal
moraine.
3.
(b) Drumlins:
Sometimes the glacier, during its movement, goes on
depositing material along the bottom of its path. Such a
material, which is deposited on the valley-floor of a
glacier, is always off heterogeneous nature and in an
unstratified form. Such a deposit is called ground
moraine. After a vast interval of time, the ground
moraine is reshaped by the moving ice typically like
inverted bowl of a tea-spoon. Such a re-shaped deposit
is called "drumlin". A drumlin is more or less elliptical in
plan with their longer axis parallel the direction off
motion of the glacier.
3.
2.Fluvio glacial drift:
We have already studied that in the life of a glacier a stage comes
where the material carried by it is separated out. If such a separation
takes place at a lower level whew the glacier melts and gives birth to
a stream, it carries away the fine particles. The remaining load, which
is in the form of boulders, pebbles etc. is deposited. Such a deposit,
which takes place by the combined action of water and ice is
heterogeneous in nature but in a stratified form is called fluvio-
glacial drift. The following three fluvio-glacial drifts are important
from the. subject point of view:­

(a) Kames.
(b) Eskers.
(c) Kettles.
3.
(a)Kames:
It is a stratified deposit of heterogeneous nature occurring in isolated
patches and rounded outlines. A kame is formed by the deposition
of debris by the stream, which is obtained from the glacier.
(b) Eskers: It is a stratified deposit of heterogeneous nature occurring in
narrow out long meandering ridges. An esker is formed by the
deposition of silt and clay (sometimes sand and gravel also) by the
streams which is obtained from the glacier.
(c)kettles:
Sometimes a fluvio-glacial drift contains buried blocks of ice, which
melts with the passage of time. The melting of these ice blocks
results in making depressions or holes in the surface of the deposits.
Such a deposit, with holes in their surface, is called a kettle.
3.
Comparison between the geological work of a glacier and running water:
Both glaciers as well as rivers, move and carry the materials under the force of
gravity. But the transport of a glacier differs from that of a river in the following
respects:­
1. In the case of a glacier there is no limit of rock size that it can carry. But in the
case of a river it cannot carry heavy boulders.
2. In the case of a glacier the velocity of a dust particle is the same as that of a rock
fragment weighing many tons. But in the case of running water finer particles
are lifted up by the water and' are carried in suspension, whereas the coarser.
and heavier fragments are pushed and rolled along the bed of the channel. But
their movement is much slower than that of the suspended particles.
3. In the case of glaciers, U-shaped valleys are formed as a result of erosion. But in
the case of running water V-shaped valleys are formed.
4. In the case of glaciers the deposit is poorly sorted i.e. big boulders are deposited
along with the dust particles. But in the case of running water the deposit is well
sorted i.e. all the material is deposited according to the size of particles e.g
heavier and bigger particles are deposited near the heads, whereas finest
particles are carried to 'the farthest points.
3.
Engineering considerations:
Strictly speaking any site for the construction of an
important work is not selected either on a glacier or in
the path of a glacier. The engineer may have to come
across such a site where the deposition of boulder clay
might have taken place in the recent past. It has been
experienced that deposits of boulder clay are more
difficult to handle, because these are treacherous
deposits due to their heterogeneous character. Such a
site should, preferably be avoided. But if such a site is
unavoidable then the boulder clay should be removed
and the foundations of the project should be laid on
some firm strata.
4.
Geological work of sea:
The ocean occupy nearly 71% of the surface of the earth and are
major bodies of water. The seas are minor ones and are parts or
extensions of the oceans towards the land areas, being bordered on
one side or both by land areas. It has been observed that the sea
water contains about 3.5% of salt by weight. Oceans or seas are the
restless bodies of water and are never quiet Following are the
movements in the waters of an ocean:
1. waves.
2. Tides.
3. Currents.
The geological work of the sea is done mostly by the waves, and is
seen only near the sea shores as discussed below:­
4.
Formation of waves:
When a strong wind blows over the surface of an ocean, it turns each particle of
water near the surface into an oscillatory motion due to friction. This oscillatory
motion ultimately gives birth to waves. That is why we say that waves are
generally formed by the wind. Sometimes, the waves are also generated .by
earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. In a wave, the motion of water particle
depends upon its wave length (i.e. Horizontal distance between the crest of one
wave to that of the other)and. its height (i.e. vertical distance between the crest
and trough) as shown in FIGURE-7, page 42(A). It may be noted that the height,
of a wave normally varies up to 10 meters; and the wave length varies even up
to 200 meters. In principle the wave motion is an , up and down movement of
water. But each particle traces a slight elliptical orbital path with a slight
movement in the direction of the wind. It is only near the land areas, where the
waves actually move to and fro. It has been observed that below the water
surface, the orbital diameter diminishes with the depth and ultimately ceases at
a depth equal to its wave length.
Geological work of waves:
In addition to the role of the sea for supporting abundant organic life, seas are
also important agents of:-
1. EROSION. 2.TRANSPORT .3. DEPOSITION.
4.
1.Erosion:
The work of erosion, by waves, takes place by the following
processes:­
(a) Hydraulic action.
(b) Abrasion.
(c) Undertow current and (d)Corrosion.
(a) Hydraulic action: the waves go on impacting (i.e. dashing) forcefully,
against the shore. Due to this continuous impact, the, shore rocks are
subjected to remarkable wear and tear. In jointed rocks, the effect of
hydraulic action is much more; even beyond the reach of dashing
water. This happens, because the dashing waves effectively
compress the air, present within the joints and other openings. This
compressed air, in its turn, exerts enormous pressure on the rocks.
Such an action of the compressed air, in the course of time, results in
the gradual disruption of the rocks. This type of erosion, by the
waves, is called erosion by hydraulic action. The effect of hydraulic
action is seen to be conspicuous during the severe storms.
4.
(b) Abrasion: The waves have a tendency to
drag rock fragments (broken by their
hydraulic action) because of their kinetic
energy. Sometimes the waves loaded with
these rock fragments attain considerable
erosive power, which helps in eroding the
surface of the shore rocks by rubbing and
grinding action. This type of erosion, by the
waves, is known as abrasion. These rock
fragments also collide and strike against each
other, many times during their transport.
These mutual collisions lead to their further
breakdown.
4.
(c) Undertow current: Sometimes a wave coming
towards the shore with a high velocity is abruptly
checked by sea shore as shown in FIGURE-8 (a), page
42(A). It reduces the velocity of the. lower layers of
water, which come in contact with the shore; whereas
the upper layers go on moving with its original velocity
as shown in FIGURE-8(b). Such a current is known as
undertow current; when the undertow current
collapses (i.e. upper layers of water fall on the sea
shore with a great kinetic energy) it erodes the shore
rocks. The water on its way back to the sea carries away
the eroded material. This type of erosion is known as
erosion by "undertow current".
4.
(d) Corrosion: we have already studied that the
sea water contains salts in a dissolved form.
These salts have slow but steady chemical action
on the shore rocks, with which they come in
contact. The solvent action of the sea water is
seen to be more effective in regions where the
rocks are of suitable composition. This type of
erosion is known as "corrosion". The work of
erosion, done by the waves, on the sea shore,
depends upon the following two factors:­
1. Force with which the waves dash against the
shore.
2. Nature of the shore.
It has been observed that when the waves dash against the shore,the
impact of water causes considerable erosion and the eroded material
is carried away partly in suspension and partly in solution. It has also
been observed that when the incoming waves, armed with material,
dash against the shore, the process, of erosion is accelerated due to
rubbing and grinding action. It has been seen that if the shore is
made up of hard and resistant rocks, the rate of erosion will be less.
But if the shore is made, up of comparatively soft rocks, the rate of
erosion will be more, under the same set of conditions. As a result of
wave erosion shores are eroded bit by bit, especially when the waves
going towards the sea are stronger than the incoming waves.

Sometimes violent whirls in the atmosphere move from the sea side
to the coastal areas and cause a considerable loss of life and damage
to property. Such whirls are called cyclones (Greek, cyclone=coil of
snake) Which move about 300 to 500 kms a day. Very heavy rainfall,
high seas and swell are also associated with cyclonic storms. Near
coastal areas, severe cyclones produce violent tidal waves which
inundate the low lying areas.
4.
• 2. Transportation:
• The incoming waves tend to shift the material towards
the shore, whereas the outgoing waves tend to carry
the material towards the sea. Generally the waves
while coming towards the shore, do not possess as
much power as transporting agent, as they do while
going away from the shore. But sometimes, waves
instead of carrying the rock particles from the shore,
carry the rock particles towards the shore, which are
obtained from the sea bed. As already mentioned, the
eroded rock particles are carried by the sea waves in
the following. two ways:­
• 1. In suspension.
• 2. In solution.
3.
Suspended particles are carried by the sea waves to
considerable distances depending upon the
strength of the waves as a transporting agent and
the size of the rock particles; whereas the particles
in solution are carried to far off distances, where
minute organisms animals and plants, extract
certain minerals like calcium carbonate from the
sea water build their shells and skeletons.
3.
• 3.Deposition:
• Rock particles which are curried in
suspension by the waves are deposited on the floors of
the sea, sooner or later depending upon the
environments. Coarser and heavier sediments are left
on the beach and are called beach shingle , whereas
finer particles are carried several hundred kilometers.
As soon as the carrying capacity of the waves is
decreased and suspended' particles settle down and are
deposited on the floors of the sea under the force of
gravity. It has been observed that the living organisms,
animals and plants of the sea go on extracting minerals
from the sea water and build their shells and skeletons.,
which are accumulated in thick deposits later on.
4.
Coral reefs:
A coral reef is a particular type of sea
deposit, originated by the accumulation of
dead parts of sea organisms, among which
the corals are prominent. The growth of
corals takes place under sea water in
favorable circumstances (i.e. at' a, depth of
50 to 60 meters from the sea level and a
temperature of 68°F to 78°F). The dead
bodies of the organisms go on accumulating
in sea and--their deposit is called coral reef.
4.
Engineering considerations:
Engineers engaged on harbor maintenance or improvement, or those
who are carrying out their work near the sea-shore face either of the
following two problems as a result of the wave action:­
1. Erosion of sea shore or harbor structures.
2. Silting up of harbor
strictly speaking the protective measures, for the erosion, to be
adopted depend upon the direction and strength of the waves as
well as nature of the coast at a particular site. When the waves erode
the harbor structures, protection walls are provided in order to
prevent the erosion, and destruction of the harbor structures. When
waves carry load particles towards the shore, thus silting up the
harbor, barriers are constructed in the sea which considerably reduce
the velocity of the waves and the rock particles are deposited
beyond the barriers; and are carried back towards the sea when the
waves going towards the sea attain sufficient power as a transporting
agent.
3.

END OF LECTURE

BREAK FOR 15 MINUTES