Chapter Three: Data Encoding, Data Transmission and Multiplexing

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Chapter Three

Data Encoding, Data


Transmission and Multiplexing

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Introduction
 Data transmission occurs between transmitter and receiver over
some transmission medium.
 Transmission media may be classified as guided or unguided
 In both cases, communication is in the form of electromagnetic
waves
 Electromagnetic signals include power, voice, radio, waves,
infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays
 The successful transmission of data depends on two factors:-
– The quality of the signal being transmitted.
– The characteristics of the transmission medium.
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Analog and Digital Data Transmission

 In transmitting data from a source to a destination one must be concerned


with :
– the nature of the data
– the transmission media used to propagate the data
– what processing or adjustments may be required along the way to assure
that the received data are understandable.
 Generally whether we are dealing with analog or digital entities, the term
analog and digital correspond, roughly to continuous and discrete respectively
• These two terms are used frequently in data communications in at least
three contexts:
– Data: entities that convey meaning
– Signaling: the act of propagating the signal along a medium
– Transmission: is the communication of data 3
• Data
– Entities that deliver meaning.
– Can be : Analog or Digital
• Analog

– Data take on continuous values on some interval, i.e.


continuously varying patterns of intensity.
– E.g. Audio, video, temperature, etc.
• Digital

– Data take on discrete values


– E.g. text or character strings 4
• Signals
– Electric or electromagnetic representations of data
– Can be : Analog or Digital
– Analog signal: is a continuously varying electromagnetic wave that
may be propagated over a variety of media depending on spectrum;
– Examples : wire media (such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber optic
cable) and atmosphere or space propagation
– Digital signal: is a sequence of voltage pulses that may be
transmitted over a wire medium
– Example: a constant positive voltage level may represent binary 1. and
a constant negative voltage level may represent binary 0.

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• Transmission
– Communication of data by propagation and processing of signals

– The way signals are treated is a function of the transmission system


– Analog transmission is a means of transmitting analog signals
without regard to their content the signals may represent analog data
(e.g., voice) or digital data (e.g., binary data that pass through a
modem).
– Digital transmission: is concerned with the content of the signal.

– A digital signal can be transmitted only a limited distance before


attenuation endangers the integrity of the data.
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Analog Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data

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Digital Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data

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Transmission Impairments
• Signal received may differ from signal transmitted due to various
transmission impairments [deficiencies]
• The impairments are in
– Analog - degradation of signal quality
– Digital - bit errors
• A binary 1 is transformed into a binary 0 and vice versa

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• The most significant impairments are Caused by:-
 Attenuation and attenuation distortion
 Delay distortion
 Noise

• Solution:-
 Amplifiers – analog signal
 Repeaters – digital signal

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Attenuation
• It is a phenomenon which occurs when signal strength falls off with
distance.
• It depends on medium, mediums such as Fiber optic cables carries signal
without attenuation up to 2Km.
• In communicating entities, received signal strength:
– must be enough to be detected

– must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error

• Analog signal will become weaker (attenuated) after a certain distance.


• To achieve longer distances, the analog transmission system includes
amplifiers that improvement/boost the energy in the signal.
• Unfortunately, the amplifier also boosts the noise/sound components. 12
Delay Distortion

• This distortion can only occur in guided media


• The distortion is caused by :
– When the propagation velocity varies with frequency
– Various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the
receiver at different times.
• Delay distortion occurs when signal velocity and frequency vary. This
means that all signals do not arrive at the same time, resulting
in distortion of the signal.
• Delay distortion is particularly critical for digital data.

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Noise
• Additional unwanted signals that are inserted somewhere between
transmission and reception is known as noise.
• A major limiting factor in communications system performance.
• Noise can be:
– Thermal Noise
– Due to thermal agitation or distress of electrons
– often referred to as white noise; it cannot be eliminated
– Crosstalk
– A signal from one line is picked up by another
– Impulse Noise
– caused from electromagnetic interference, lightning, sudden
power switching, electromechanical switching, etc. 14
Digital and analogue signals
• All data stored in computers is stored in digital form (i.e. it is a
sequence of 0s and 1s).
• Exactly how this digital data is transmitted over the physical
cabling of the network can vary.
• If the digital signal is transmitted in analogue form then some
kind of conversion must take place at both the sending and
receiving computers.

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Analogue signals
• Analogue signals consist of a number of components:
– the amplitude is the height/value of the waveform,
– the wavelength is the length of a single wave, and
– the phase can be thought of as the starting point of the
wave.
• For example, an analogue wave that starts at zero
and goes upwards will have a different phase to one
that starts at zero and goes downward.

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• Bandwidth is defined as "the range of frequencies that
the channel is capable of transmitting without
interference or signal loss" and is measured in Hertz.
• The greater the range of frequencies a medium can
handle, the greater its information-carrying capacity.

• In data communications, bandwidth is generally


specified in bits per second (bps). A channel that
supports a 2 Mbps bandwidth can support a
transmission rate of two million bits per second.

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Digital transmission of digital data

• In digital transmission, signals flow in the form of discrete


pulses of electricity (voltage) or light.
• Because of the problem of attenuation of the signal (i.e.
signal loss over distance), digital transmission systems use
repeaters to boost the signal back to its original strength
when transmitting over long distances.

• When transmitting a digital signal in digital form over a


network, a number of techniques can be employed to encode
the data stream.
• Two of the more common Encoding techniques are described
below.
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Encoding Schemes
1. Non return to zero (NRZ)
• The most common and easiest way to transmit digital
signals
• use two different voltage levels for the two binary digits (0
and 1).
• For example, a voltage level of zero could represent a 0
digit, and a constant positive voltage could represent a 1
digit.
• More commonly, a negative voltage is used to represent one
of the binary digits and a positive voltage to represent the
other.
• In this case the scheme is known as Non-return to zero
(NRZ), because the signal is never at zero voltage.
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• If the senders and receivers clocks are not precisely
aligned, then eventually there will be problems.

• If the clocks are misaligned by just 0.01 microseconds,


then after 50 or more bits have been received the
receiver may be in error because of the drift in timing.
• This is known as the synchronisation problem in digital
communications.

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• To overcome the limitations of NRZ encoding,
which is lack of synchronization on the timing of
bits between the sender and receiver, biphase
encoding techniques can be adopted. These are:
– Manchester and differential Manchester Coding

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2. Manchester encoding

• Manchester encoding and Differential Manchester


techniques offer one means of overcoming the
synchronisation problem.
• With Manchester encoding data is transmitted not
by the voltage level of the stream, but by a transition
in this voltage level.
• For example, a low-to-high transition could
represent a 1, and a high-to-low transition could
represent a 0.
• When the receiving computer notices the voltage
transition it can resynchronise its clock to align with
that of the sender.
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Multiplexing
• The technique of allowing multiple signals to be
transmitted at the same time over the same cable is called
multiplexing.
• The role of the multiplexer (MUX) is to accept data from
more than one source, and transmit it over the shared
channel.
• The de-multiplexer (DEMUX) accepts data from the
shared channel, and sends it on to its correct destination.

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• The two main types of multiplexing:
– Time-division multiplexing (TDM) and
– Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
• both aim to maximise the number of message
signals that can be transmitted over the shared
transmission link.

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Frequency-division multiplexing
• The earliest and least sophisticated method of
multiplexing, and can be employed only if the data
is being transmitted in analogue form.
• it offers the possibility of dividing the bandwidth
of the line into independent, permanently
assigned, lower-speed sub channels that operate on
particular frequencies within the spectrum.
• The speed (bits per second) at which the channel
operates depends upon the amount of bandwidth
(Hz) assigned to each channel;

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Time-division multiplexing
• Divides time into slices/parties called time slots.
• With TDM, each computer takes its turn at transmitting and
receiving data; the order in which the multiplexer serves the
computers is fixed.
• Depending upon the multiplexer type, the device accepts only
one bit, byte, or packet of data from each input line; puts it
into a specifically allocated time slot on the high-speed
transmission line; and then moves on to the next terminal in
the sequence.
• The process of accepting data from many computers in
succession is called interleaving.
• TDM can be used with both digital and analogue transmission.
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Thank You

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